Pali and the language of the heretics
Journal name: Acta Orientalia
Original article title: Pali and the language of the heretics
ACTA ORIENTALIA is a journal focused on the study of Oriental languages, history, archaeology, and religions from ancient times to the present. The journal includes articles reviewed by a senior scholar in the relevant field.
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K. R. Normann
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Acta Orientalia:
(Founded in 1922 and published annually)
Full text available for: Pali and the language of the heretics
Year: 1976 | Doi: 10.5617/ao.5147
Copyright (license): CC BY 4.0
Summary of article contents:
1) Introduction
K. R. Norman's exploration of the relationship between Pali and the language of the heretics addresses the phonological and morphological characteristics of Pali that deviate from its typical patterns, particularly with regard to specific nominative and vocative singular endings like -e. This has led to the classification of these features as 'Magadhisms', believed to be borrowing from Mägadhi. The presence of such endings prompts an investigation into their origins, whether they stem from Mägadhi, Sinhalese Prakrit, or other sources. The study also highlights the implications of these forms within the context of the doctrines of heretical figures as recorded in the Pali canon.
2) The Nominative Singular Ending -e
The examination of the nominative singular ending -e reveals debates concerning its origin and the possible motivations behind its incorporation into Pali texts. While it was suggested that these forms might have been deliberately introduced as a means to ridicule heretics or because of a perception that Pali was inappropriate for their speech, Norman argues against these theories. He presents evidence that indicates these forms are inconsistent across different heretics and texts, implying the possibility of varied sources rather than intentional alteration. The evidence suggests that both Buddhist and Jain accounts regarding heretical doctrines refer to different linguistic sources that incorporate both -e and -o forms.
3) The Genitive Plural Ending -uno
The genitive plural form -uno is similarly examined, with Norman noting that while Barua identified this form as a potential singular used as plural, other explanations are plausible. The development of -uno may reflect broader trends in Middle Indo-Aryan, with influences present in Pali and Prakrit. Norman provides a thorough analysis of the context and transformation of this ending, indicating that it likely cannot be attributed to Sinhalese influences given the timeframes and forms present in that language. This suggests a connection to North-Western Prakrit, wherein the change of genitive plural endings aligns with features not found in later Sinhalese.
4) The Unlikelihood of Sinhalese Influence
Norman’s investigation concludes that the anomalous forms in Pali, particularly the endings -e and -uno, are unlikely to have arisen from Ceylonese influences. His analysis of historical evidence, including the dating of relevant linguistic forms in Sinhalese inscriptions, supports the idea that these transmissions occurred before certain changes in Sinhalese were implemented. This affirms the notion that the forms in question were derived from mainland India, especially from a North-Western Prakrit source, rather than being introduced later from Sinhalese. Additionally, the lack of a corresponding form in Sinhalese for the ending -uno reinforces this conclusion.
5) Conclusion
In summation, K. R. Norman’s study offers a significant reevaluation of the linguistic features found in Pali, particularly those associated with heretical figures. The investigation into the nominative singular ending -e and the genitive plural ending -uno indicates that these forms likely derive from mainland Prakrit influences rather than Sinhalese sources. By contrasting the distribution and origins of these forms within the broader context of Middle Indo-Aryan languages, Norman contributes to a deeper understanding of the linguistic landscape during the time of the Pali canon’s formation. His findings highlight the complex interplay between these dialects and underscore the challenges of deciphering historical linguistic transitions.
FAQ section (important questions/answers):
What are 'Magadhisms' in the context of Pali language?
Magadhisms refer to certain phonological and morphological features in Pali, specifically nominative singular masculine and neuter endings -e, and vocative singular ending -e, which are believed to be borrowings from the Magadhi dialect.
How did different scholars interpret the use of forms in -e?
Scholars have suggested that -e forms in Pali may stem from either dialectal borrowings, heretical influences, or as traits indicating lower social status. This classification considers contexts in which these forms appear within the Pali canon.
Why are the endings -e and -uno significant in Pali studies?
The endings -e and -uno highlight potential borrowings or influences in Pali language from other dialects. Understanding their origins contributes to the study of linguistic development and the cultural interactions of the period.
What evidence exists regarding the introduction of -e forms into Pali?
Evidence suggests that the rare occurrence of -e forms may not be accidental, as their distribution in the Pali canon does not follow a consistent pattern, implying deliberate introduction possibly from different sources.
What variations exist in the speech of the heretics recorded in Pali?
The dialogue of heretics in Pali shows inconsistent use of -e and -o endings, indicating that different sources informed their presentations in the texts, with some heretics’ speeches containing mixed forms.
Why is the genitive plural ending -uno notable?
The genitive plural ending -uno is significant because it does not appear in Sinhalese, suggesting that it likely originated from other Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, particularly indicative of North-Western influences, rather than from Sinhalese.
Glossary definitions and references:
Oriental and Historical glossary list for “Pali and the language of the heretics”. This list explains important keywords that occur in this article and links it to the glossary for a better understanding of that concept in the context of History, Linguistics, Religion, Philosophy, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism etc.
1) Pali (Palin):
Pali is a Middle Indo-Aryan language in which much of the Buddhist scriptures are written. It contains certain phonological and morphological features that do not conform to its usual pattern. This is evident in the analysis of forms like the nominative singular endings and their varied sources of origin.
2) Language:
The term 'language' refers to the structured system of communication. Multiple languages such as Pali, Prakrit, Sinhalese Prakrit, and Magadhi are discussed in terms of their influence on the Buddhist and Jain texts.
3) Prakrit (Prakrt):
Prakrit refers to Middle Indo-Aryan languages that include various dialects such as Magadhi and North-Western Prakrit. These dialects influenced Pali and it borrows certain grammatical forms from them.
4) Sanskrit:
Sanskrit is an ancient Indo-Aryan language from which many Middle Indo-Aryan languages, including Prakrit and Pali, derived. It influenced the formation and transformation of grammatical forms found in Pali, Jain texts, and other Prakrit languages.
5) Jain:
The Jain texts, written in variants like Ardha-Magadhi, provide insights into the language and doctrines of non-Buddhist sects. The Jain canonical text, Panhavagaranaim, includes similar doctrinal passages to those found in Buddhist texts.
6) Buddhism (Buddhist tradition):
Buddhist references are prevalent in the text, detailing the Pali canon's formation as well as the Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit and Prakrit influences. Doctrinal similarities with Jain texts point to a shared source or mutual borrowing.
7) Existence:
[see source text or glossary: Existence]
8) Doctrine:
Doctrine refers to the set of beliefs held by religious communities, such as those of the Buddhists and Jains. The text discusses various heretic doctrines recorded in Pali, including their linguistic characteristics.
9) Magadhi:
Magadhi is an Eastern Prakrit language, elements of which are referred to as Magadhisms in the text. These elements, particularly the nominative singular and vocative singular endings, contribute to the linguistic features observed in Pali.
10) Ceylon:
Ceylon, known today as Sri Lanka, plays a crucial role in the transmission of Pali texts. It is suggested that certain linguistic features in Pali might have originated from the Sinhalese Prakrit spoken in Ceylon.
11) Speech:
The term 'speech' here refers to the dialogues attributed to heretic figures in Pali texts. These speeches contain features like the nominative singular ending -e, which have been analyzed for their linguistic and doctrinal significance.
12) Ajivika (Ajivaka):
Ajivika is a sect mentioned in the text whose doctrines and language are analyzed. The presence of forms like 'hupeyya' and certain nominative singular endings in Pali texts might indicate their original dialect.
13) Dialect:
The text references several dialects, including Magadhi, Sinhalese Prakrit, and North-Western Prakrit, that have influenced Pali. The dialectical variations are essential for understanding the linguistic evolution within religious texts.
14) Aryan:
Aryan refers to the family of Indo-European languages, to which Sanskrit and its descendant Prakrit languages belong. Middle Indo-Aryan languages like Pali and Prakrit are studied for their linguistic transitions from Vedic Sanskrit.
15) Grammar:
The grammar of languages such as Pali, Prakrit, and Sanskrit is analyzed in terms of morphological and phonological features. The text specifically looks at genitive plural forms and nominative endings across languages.
16) Pathavi:
[see source text or glossary: Pathavi]
17) Nikaya (Nikâya):
Nikaya refers to collections within the Buddhist canon. The text analyzes discrepancies in heretic speeches between Dighanikaya and Majjhima-nikaya, indicating the existence of varied sources and transmission errors.
18) Buddha:
[see source text or glossary: Buddha]
19) Ardha:
Ardha refers to Ardha-Magadhi, a dialect in which Jain texts are written. The text compares forms found in Ardha-Magadhi to those in Pali to understand commonalities and differences in heretic doctrines.
20) India:
India is the geographical context where these languages and texts originated. The text traces the influence of Indian subcontinental languages on religious texts, particularly in Buddhist and Jain traditions.
21) Ardhamagadhi (Ardha-magadhi):
Ardha-magadhi is a dialect used in Jain canonical texts. The text notes that many heretic doctrines in Pali show linguistic features of Ardha-Magadhi, indicating a common religious and linguistic heritage.
22) Transmission:
Transmission refers to the process by which texts were orally passed down and later written. The text discusses how linguistic features might have been introduced during these phases, particularly in relation to Ceylonese scribes.
23) Buddhaghosa (Buddhaghosha):
Buddhaghosa was a 5th-century commentator who glossed several anomalous forms in Pali. His interpretations provide insights into the historical usage and understanding of these forms.
24) Apabhramsha (Apabhramsa):
Apabhramsa is a late stage in the linguistic evolution of the Indo-Aryan languages. The text mentions its influence on forms like the genitive plural, contributing to the debate on linguistic development over time.
25) Dharmapada (Dharma-pada):
The Gandhari Dharmapada is a text in a North-Western Prakrit dialect that shows similar linguistic features to those discussed. It supports the idea of regional linguistic influences on Pali.
26) Atthakatha (Attha-katha):
Atthakatha refers to Pali commentaries. The text suggests that certain dialect forms in Pali might be borrowed from the Sihala-Atthakatha, showing how commentarial traditions influenced canonical texts.
27) Discussion:
The text engages in scholarly discussion regarding the origin of various linguistic features in Pali. It considers propositions by notable scholars and linguistic evidence to conclude on the borrowings from different Prakrits.
28) Kharoshthi (Kharosthi):
Kharosthi is a script used in North-Western India. References to Kharosthi inscriptions illustrate how linguistic features like nominative singular endings influenced early Middle Indo-Aryan languages including Pali.
29) Gandhari (Gamdhari):
Gandhari is a North-Western Prakrit language noted for changes like final -am to -o. The Gandhari Dharmapada supports this linguistic development and its influence on the forms found in Pali.
30) Sihala:
[see source text or glossary: Sihala]
31) Digha:
Digha refers to the Digha-nikaya, part of the Pali canon. The text analyzes discrepancies between heretics' speeches in Digha-nikaya and Majjhima-nikaya to identify sources of linguistic variations.
32) Sutta (Shutta):
[see source text or glossary: Sutta]
33) Kamma:
Kamma, often glossed in Buddhist texts, shows linguistic forms like kammano and kammuno. These illustrate analogous grammatical transformations in Prakrit and Pali, key for understanding morphological changes.
34) Veda:
Vedic refers to ancient Indo-Aryan texts. Vedic Sanskrit forms influenced later Middle Indo-Aryan forms in Pali and Prakrit, showing the historical continuity and transformation in grammatical structures.
35) Vayo:
[see source text or glossary: Vayo]
36) Jiva:
[see source text or glossary: Jiva]
37) King:
[see source text or glossary: King]
38) Majjhima Nikaya (Majjhima-nikaya):
Majjhima Nikaya is another collection in the Pali canon. Comparisons of heretic speeches between Majjhima Nikaya and Dighanikaya help trace the linguistic sources and variations in doctrinal accounts.
39) Makkhali Gosala (Makkhali-gosala):
Makkhali Gosala is one of the heretics whose speech in Pali texts contains Magadhisms. His doctrines are critical to understanding the linguistic influence of Magadhi on Pali.
40) Sanskrit drama:
Sanskrit drama frequently uses dialects for different characters. The text mentions how these stylistic choices in Sanskrit dramas influenced perceptions of linguistic suitability for characters in religious texts.
41) Sumangalavilasini:
Sumangalavilasini is a commentary by Buddhaghosa. It includes glosses that clarify the meanings of anomalous forms in the Pali canon, aiding in understanding the historical layers of the text.
42) Papancasudani:
Papancasudani is another commentary discussing anomalous forms in the Pali canon. It supports the notion that these forms were already present during Buddhaghosa's time.
43) Disappearance (Disappeared, Disappear, Disappearing):
The disappearance of linguistic forms such as the nominative singular ending -e in inscriptions indicates a historical linguistic shift, informing debates on when these forms were introduced into Pali.
44) Dighanikaya:
[see source text or glossary: Dighanikaya]
45) Shahanushahi (Sahanusahi):
[see source text or glossary: Sahanusahi]
46) Knowledge:
Knowledge in this context refers to the scholarly understanding and transmission of linguistic and doctrinal elements within the Pali canon and related texts.
47) Evolution:
Evolution describes the linguistic changes over time, such as nominative endings and genitive plural transformations in Indo-Aryan languages. These shifts underline the dynamic nature of language in religious texts.
48) Varanasi (Varanashi):
[see source text or glossary: Varanasi]
49) Calcutta:
[see source text or glossary: Calcutta]
50) Mahayana (Maha-yana):
[see source text or glossary: Mahayana]
51) Majjhima:
[see source text or glossary: Majjhima]
52) Religion:
Religion contextualizes the doctrines discussed within Buddhist and Jain traditions. It frames the linguistic analysis within the religious practices and beliefs in ancient India.
53) Metrics (Metric):
Metrical considerations connected with the transmission of texts sometimes led to adaptations in linguistic forms for poetic and rhythmic purposes. This influences how we interpret certain grammar forms.
54) Erjhuna:
[see source text or glossary: Erjhuna]
55) Hundred:
[see source text or glossary: Hundred]
56) Goshala (Gosala, Go-shala):
[see source text or glossary: Gosala]
57) Kalaka:
[see source text or glossary: Kalaka]
58) Indian:
Indian references indicate the geographical and cultural backdrop of the languages and texts discussed. Linguistic variations in the Pali canon and Jain texts reflect broader Indian linguistic traditions.
59) Upaka:
[see source text or glossary: Upaka]
60) Ajita:
[see source text or glossary: Ajita]
61) Rajan:
[see source text or glossary: Rajan]
62) Poona:
[see source text or glossary: Poona]
63) Antam:
[see source text or glossary: Antam]
64) Barua:
Barua is a scholar mentioned in the text who made assumptions about genitive plural forms like -kappuno. His interpretations contribute to the scholarly discussion about the origins of these forms.
65) Kshuna (Ksuna):
[see source text or glossary: Ksuna]
66) Drama:
Drama is referenced regarding the use of certain dialects in Sanskrit plays. This stylistic use informs the analysis of how similar linguistic choices might have been perceived in religious texts.
67) Sound:
[see source text or glossary: Sound]
68) Tejo:
[see source text or glossary: Tejo]
69) Anga (Amga):
[see source text or glossary: Anga]