A Khotanese verb-list
Journal name: Acta Orientalia
Original article title: A Khotanese verb-list
ACTA ORIENTALIA is a journal focused on the study of Oriental languages, history, archaeology, and religions from ancient times to the present. The journal includes articles reviewed by a senior scholar in the relevant field.
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R. E. Emmerick
Acta Orientalia:
(Founded in 1922 and published annually)
Full text available for: A Khotanese verb-list
Year: 1968 | Doi: 10.5617/ao.5216
Copyright (license): CC BY 4.0
Download the PDF file of the original publication
Summary of article contents:
1) Introduction
The study of Khotanese verbs is crucial for understanding the intricacies of this inflected language, as outlined by R. E. Emmerick in "A Khotanese Verb-List." This compilation serves as a summary and reference point for Khotanese verbs derived from Emmerick's extensive grammatical research and specifically focuses on verb morphology. The list includes present stems that are either extant or can be inferred based on previous linguistic studies, providing insights into their meanings, types, inflections, and connections to etymology. This effort highlights the complexity and richness of Khotanese, an Old Iranian language.
2) Classification of Khotanese Verbs
Systematic Classification of Present Stems
Emmerick classifies present stems within Khotanese using a systematic framework applicable to Old and Middle Iranian languages. Key categories of verbs include primary forms, reduplicated stems, nasal varieties, sibilant forms, yod forms, and denominative verbs. Each category elucidates structural aspects such as the thematic vowel and root grades, allowing for a more organized approach to understanding verb forms and their derivatives. The classification aids scholars in identifying verb types and their specific inflectional patterns, which are crucial for interpreting Khotanese texts correctly.
3) Verb Inflection Patterns
Inflectional Endings of Khotanese Verbs
The inflection of Khotanese verbs can be categorized based on the endings used for various conjugations, both in third singular and plural forms. Emmerick specifies several patterns resulting in a variety of spellings, especially evident in Late Khotanese. Notable examples include the endings for active and middle voices such as -ite, -are, -iti, -indi, or specific forms marked for particular functions. This inflectional approach not only demonstrates the dynamism of verb forms within Khotanese but also reveals the nuanced ways verbs interact within syntactical structures.
4) Present Stems Examples
Diversity of Verb Stems Across Categories
The verb list offers numerous examples of present stems illustrating the diversity within Khotanese. Examples include verbs such as "ah-" (to be), "jsan-" (to make boil), "uysgun-" (to open), and "ttram-" (to cross over), each representing specific categories such as primary forms and nasal verbs. By providing concrete examples along with their classifications, Emmerick showcases the richness of Khotanese vocabulary and phonology. This collection serves as an essential reference for researchers studying Khotanese linguistics, grammar, and historical derivations.
5) Etymological Connections
Understanding Etymology in Khotanese Verbs
Emmerick's verb list not only categorizes verbs but also connects them with their potential etymological roots. Each entry outlines how verbs relate etymologically to other languages or forms, emphasizing the linguistic heritage of Khotanese. This exploration leads scholars to appreciate the evolution of these verbs and their interconnections with Iranian languages, providing insights into historical linguistics. Such etymological analysis enhances understanding of the socio-linguistic context surrounding the development of Khotanese, crucial for both language preservation and studies of cultural history.
6) Conclusion
The Khotanese Verb-List by R. E. Emmerick represents a significant scholarly contribution, facilitating a deeper examination of Khotanese verb morphology. Through systematic verb classification, detailed inflection patterns, diverse examples of present stems, and etymological connections, the list serves as an invaluable resource for linguists and historians alike. Understanding these elements enables a more nuanced approach to interpreting Khotanese texts and contributes to the broader understanding of Old Iranian languages. Emmerick's work underscores the importance of verb studies in comprehending the complexities of inflected languages, reflecting the intricacies of Khotanese language and culture.
FAQ section (important questions/answers):
What is the significance of studying Khotanese verbs?
Studying Khotanese verbs is crucial for understanding Khotanese as an inflected language. Verb morphology plays a prominent role in grammatical studies, aiding in the interpretation of Khotanese texts.
How are Khotanese present stems classified?
Khotanese present stems are classified using a systematic approach covering Old and Middle Iranian languages. They are categorized into groups such as Primary, Reduplicated, Nasal, Sibilant, Yod, and Denominative based on morphological features.
What does the Khotanese verb-list include?
The Khotanese verb-list summarizes results from grammatical studies, providing information on present stems, types of inflection, meanings, etymology, and associated past participles, arranged for quick reference.
How are Khotanese verbs typically inflected?
Khotanese verbs can be inflected under four headings, determined by the form of the third singular and plural. Endings may vary in spelling, especially in Late Khotanese.
Are Khotanese verbs thematic?
Yes, all Khotanese verbs are thematic, though the actual thematic vowel has mostly disappeared due to phonological developments in the Khotanese language.
What does 'LW' signify in the verb-list?
In the verb-list, 'LW' stands for loanword, indicating verbs borrowed from other languages or earlier linguistic forms.
What are the main types of Khotanese verbs listed?
The Khotanese verbs listed include various action verbs with different meanings and functions, reflecting a range of actions such as to give, to destroy, and to sleep.
Glossary definitions and references:
Oriental and Historical glossary list for “A Khotanese verb-list”. This list explains important keywords that occur in this article and links it to the glossary for a better understanding of that concept in the context of History, Linguistics, Religion, Philosophy, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism etc.
1) Basta (Bashta):
Basta is a Khotanese verb meaning 'to bind'. The root 'ban-' transforms into 'basta' when conjugated in certain tense forms. In the Khotanese verb-list, it is illustrated as both act. tr. A/B.
2) Rain (Rainy):
Rain is associated with the verb 'bar-' in Khotanese, meaning 'to rain'. This verb appears under section IV, classified as act. intr. B, and its ppp. form is 'bada-'.
3) Experience:
In Khotanese, the word 'vamas-' means 'to experience'. The root 'vamas-' undergoes changes to fall into the category IVa act. tr. B, with participle form 'vamasäta-'.
4) Dishta (Dista):
'Dista' is the perfect participle passive (ppp.) form of 'did-', which means 'to appear' in Khotanese. 'Did-' is classified under IIa mid. intr. B.
5) Shata (Sata):
The term 'sata-' signifies a perfect participle passive (ppp.) in Khotanese. It is derived from roots like 'hus-' meaning 'to become dry' and 'sarb-' meaning 'to rise'.
6) Lead:
The verb 'bay-' means 'to lead' in Khotanese. It falls into the Ve category as an act. tr. A verb, with a ppp. form of 'basta-'.
7) Crossing (Cross over):
The phrase 'cross over' in Khotanese is represented by the verb 'ttram-', which appears in section Vd as both an act. or mid. tr. or intr. verb with a ppp. form 'ttranda-'.
8) Language:
[see source text or glossary: Language]
9) Perfume:
The Khotanese verb 'vays-' translates to 'to perfume'. It is classified as a loanword with the perfect participle passive (ppp.) form 'väysäta-'.
10) Paṇata (Panata):
'Panata-' is the perfect participle passive (ppp.) form of 'panam-', meaning 'to rise'. Classified as a Va mid. intr. A verb in Khotanese.
11) Striya:
'Striya-' in Khotanese is a perfect participle passive (ppp.) form derived from 'stris-', indicating 'to become stiff'. The verb falls under IVa act. intr. B.
12) Pasuta (Pashuta):
'Pasuta-' represents a ppp. form in Khotanese, particularly deriving from 'pasuj-' meaning 'to light (lamp)' and 'pasujs-' meaning 'to burn'. Both are in section Ve.
13) Pahiya:
'Pahiya-' is a perfect participle passive form derived from the verb 'pahi-' meaning 'to flee'. It appears as a Ve act. intr. A/B verb in Khotanese.
14) Desire:
The concept of 'desire' is represented by the verb 'atim-' in Khotanese, meaning 'to desire'. It falls under category VIb as mid. tr. A.
15) Manda (Mamda):
'Manda-' is a perfect participle passive (ppp.) form derived from 'man-', meaning 'to remain'. Classified as Ve act. intr. A in Khotanese.
16) Jishta (Jista):
'Jista-' is the perfect participle passive (ppp.) form of the verb 'jis-', meaning 'to boil'. The verb falls under category IIb as mid. intr. B.
17) Kashta (Kasta):
'Kasta-' is the perfect participle passive (ppp.) form in Khotanese derived from verbs like 'kas-' meaning 'to fall' and 'kät-' meaning 'to think; protect'.
18) Danda (Damda):
'Danda-' is a ppp. form noticed in verbs like 'dim-', which means 'to tame' and 'to create' under the Ve section in Khotanese.
19) Ashta (Asta, Astan, Ashtan):
[see source text or glossary: Astan]
20) Wheel:
'Pravartt-' in Khotanese means 'to turn, make revolve (wheel)'. It is a borrowed term (LW) listed under act. tr. A with a ppp. form 'pravarttäta-'.
21) Fight:
The Khotanese root 'näjs-' means 'to fight'. It falls under category Ic as an act. intr. A/B in the Khotanese verb-list.
22) Drink:
[see source text or glossary: Drink]
23) Sleeping (Sleep):
'Us-' is the Khotanese verb meaning 'to sleep'. It appears under section IVa as an act. intr. B verb in the Khotanese verb-list.
24) Sweating (Sweat):
'Ahus-' is the Khotanese verb meaning 'to sweat'. Classified under IVa intr. with the perfect participle passive form 'ähusäta-'.
25) Tiya:
'Thiya-' is the perfect participle passive (ppp.) form of the verb 'thamj-', meaning 'to pull'. Falls under Ve act. tr. A/B in the Khotanese verb-list.
26) Paci:
[see source text or glossary: Pachi]
27) Pada:
'Pada-' is a perfect participle passive (ppp.) form derived from verbs like 'par-' meaning 'to pay' and 'to nourish'.
28) Vata:
'Văta-' in Khotanese is a perfect participle passive form of 'ah-' meaning 'to be'. Also applicable to 'his-' meaning 'to come'.
29) Bada:
'Băda-' is a perfect participle passive form found in verbs such as 'bar-' meaning 'to carry' and 'ber-' meaning 'to rain'.
30) Pari:
'Pari' in Khotanese primarily relates to 'to order; deign'. The verb falls into the act. intr. category with a perfect participle passive form 'parsta-'.
31) Fear:
'Puva'd-' in the Khotanese language means 'to fear'. It is classified in section Va as an act. intr. C verb, with a ppp. form 'puva’sta-'.
32) Bird:
'Dai-' in Khotanese means 'to see', but for birds, the verb associated is 'rrays-' meaning 'to cry out (of birds)'. Appears as act. or mid. intr. in A/B.
33) Puta:
'Puda-' is the perfect participle passive form of verbs like '*par-' meaning 'to bring out; present' and 'to remove' in Khotanese.
34) Forgiveness:
The concept of 'forgiveness' in Khotanese is related to the verb 'ksamev-', meaning 'to ask forgiveness of; take leave of'. Found under LW Ve.
35) Standstill:
'Stasta-' represents a ppp. form in Khotanese derived from 'stas-', meaning 'to come to a standstill; to become weary'. It belongs to section IVa act. intr. B.
36) Etymology:
[see source text or glossary: Etymology]
37) Sacrifice:
'Gyays-' in Khotanese means 'to offer (sacrifice)'. Found under tr. with the perfect participle passive form 'gyasta-' in the verb-list.
38) Confusion (Confused):
[see source text or glossary: Confusion]
39) Nirvana (Nir-vana):
'Paranirv-' in Khotanese means 'to attain complete nirvana'. Classified as a LW act. intr. in A with the perfect participle passive form 'paranärvrta-'.
40) Torment:
'Phujs-' in Khotanese translates as 'to torment'. While 'phajs-' is classified as meaning 'to disturb' with the perfect participle passive form 'phujäta-'.
41) Worship:
'Namas-' means 'to worship' in Khotanese. It falls under the LW category with act. tr. B classification and perfect participle form 'namasäta-'.
42) Release:
'Pass-' means 'to let go, release' in Khotanese. This verb falls under the Vb act. tr. A category and has the participle form 'passata-'.
43) Foolish:
[see source text or glossary: Foolish]
44) Thunder:
'Ggalj-' means 'to thunder' in Khotanese. It is classified as a Ve act. intr. A verb in the verb-list, with no other participle forms noted.
45) Rajati:
'Rășți' and 'rajāti' are examples quoted from Old Indian within the Khotanese verb-list scheme under class number B4 in the primary category.
46) Harita:
'Harita-' is derived from 'hars-', meaning 'to be left, remain'. Classified as IVa act. intr. B in the Khotanese verb-list as a perfect participle passive.
47) Spashta (Spasta):
'Spasta-' is a ppp. form in Khotanese derived from 'spass-', meaning 'to see; appear'. The verb is Ve mid. tr. or intr. A.
48) Padiya:
'Padiya-' is the perfect participle passive form derived from 'padajs-', meaning 'to burn'. Classified as Ib act. tr. B in Khotanese.
49) Parata (Para-ta):
'Parata-' is the perfect participle passive form of 'parath-', meaning 'to sell'. Classified as IIa tr., providing an example from the verb-list.
50) Animal:
[see source text or glossary: Animal]
51) Indian:
Examples from Old Indian are provided with traditional class numbers, noted in lower case Roman numerals, such as 'bhávati' from Class I.
52) Praise:
'Stav-' means 'to praise' in Khotanese. The verb is a hybrid act. tr. A/B, with the perfect participle passive (ppp.) form being 'staväta-'.
53) Kriya:
'Kriya-' is the perfect participle passive form in Khotanese derived from 'kalj-', meaning 'to strike'. Appears in Ve section as act. tr. A/B.
54) Pathin (Pathi):
[see source text or glossary: Pathi]
55) Kusta (Kushta):
'Kusta-' is the perfect participle passive form of '*kus-', meaning 'to agitate; flay'. Derived from Ib mid. tr. with pass. B classification.
56) Banda (Bamda):
'Banda-' is the perfect participle passive (ppp.) form of 'bam-', which means 'to vomit'. It falls under section Va tr. A in Khotanese.
57) Masta (Mashta):
'Masta-' in Khotanese is a perfect participle passive form derived from 'mad-', meaning 'to be intoxicated'. Classified as Va act. intr. C.
58) Jushta (Justa):
'Justa-' signifies the perfect participle passive form of 'juv-', meaning 'to fight'. Found under Ic mid. intr. A/B classification in the verb-list.
59) Namas:
'Namas-' means 'to worship' in Khotanese. It falls under the LW category with act. tr. B classification and perfect participle form 'namasäta-'.
60) Roman (Roma):
Traditional class numbers in the Khotanese verb-list are noted in lower case Roman numerals, such as bhávati (i).
61) Bihar:
'Bihar-' in Khotanese means 'to dwell'. Classified as a LW mid. intr. A/B verb, the verb falls under the borrowed terms category.
62) Panam:
'Panam-' means 'to rise' in Khotanese. This verb is classified under Va mid. intr. A category with the perfect participle form 'panata-'.
63) Doubt:
'Bitam-' translates to 'to doubt, be perplexed' in Khotanese. It's classified as an intr. verb with the perfect participle form 'bitanda-'.
64) Birth:
'Ysai-' in Khotanese means 'to be born', classified Vc mid. intr. (= pass.). A perfect participle passive form is 'ysäta-'.
65) Binam:
'Binam-', meaning 'to be hungry, starving', Ic act. intr. B verb in the list; no ppp., shows immediate relevance in basic, stark contexts.
66) Tooth (Teeth):
Teeth are associated with verbs like 'pajiy-', meaning 'to decay (of teeth)'. Falls under section Ve mid. intr. (= pass.) B in Khotanese.
67) Smoke:
The root 'padav-' in Khotanese meaning 'to dim, smoke; perfume; burn'. Classified as Ib act. tr./ mid. intr.(pass.) B with ppp. form *paduta-.
68) Light:
[see source text or glossary: Light]
69) Anger (Angry):
The root 'oys' in Khotanese means 'to be angry'. It is listed under category Ib mid. intr. B with the perfect participle passive form 'oysa-'.
70) Pattu:
'Pathu' means 'to burn up' in Khotanese as an Id tr. D verb leading to the form 'pathuta-'.
71) Shasta (Sasta, Shashta, Sashta):
'Sasta-' in Khotanese is a perfect participle passive form derived from the verb 'sad-', meaning 'to appear, seem'. Falls under Va act. intr. C.
72) Curse (Cursing, Cursed):
[see source text or glossary: Curse]
73) Faith:
The term 'faith' in Khotanese verb-list refers to the verb 'prasai-' meaning 'to have faith, believe'. Classified as LW act. intr. D with participle 'prasaida-'.
74) Hara:
[see source text or glossary: Hara]
75) Jita:
'Jita-' is a perfect participle passive form derived from 'jiy-', meaning 'to disappear, be removed'. Comes under Class Vc mid. intr. (= pass.) B in Khotanese.
[Note: The above list is limited to 75. Total glossary definitions available: 101]