The earliest known list of games: Some comments
Journal name: Acta Orientalia
Original article title: The earliest known list of games: Some comments
ACTA ORIENTALIA is a journal focused on the study of Oriental languages, history, archaeology, and religions from ancient times to the present. The journal includes articles reviewed by a senior scholar in the relevant field.
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Paul G. Brewster
Acta Orientalia:
(Founded in 1922 and published annually)
Full text available for: The earliest known list of games: Some comments
Year: 1958 | Doi: 10.5617/ao.5305
Copyright (license): CC BY 4.0
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Summary of article contents:
1) Introduction
In Paul G. Brewster's examination of an ancient list of games from the Pali Brahma-jala Sutta, he highlights the contrast presented by the Buddha between the activities of unconverted individuals and those of disciples. The Sutta, considered one of the earliest Buddhist texts, dates back to the fifth century B.C. It lists various games and amusements that the Buddha disapproves of, providing a fascinating glimpse into the leisure activities of ancient Indian society. Brewster aims to identify these activities and their modern counterparts, ultimately noting the continuity of certain games over centuries.
2) Traditional Board Games
One of the most significant games referenced in the text is Ashtapada and Dasapada, ancient Indian board games characterized by boards with eight or ten rows of squares, respectively. While the Buddha recognized the entertainment value of these games, he suggested that the intense concentration and memory required to play them distracted players from more meaningful pursuits. Brewster explicates the rules of Ashtapada, including movements made according to die throws, illustrating how deeply ingrained these games were in the culture. He also points out that elements of these games can still be seen in contemporary iterations, showcasing the lasting impact of such traditional games.
3) Dice Games
The text notes that dice games, specifically vibhitaka and paçaka, have roots in ancient Indian history and demonstrate the long-standing fascination with gambling. Brewster references literature, such as hymns from the Rigveda and dialogues from the play The Little Clay Cart, that lament the destructive allure of gambling, suggesting its prevalence in various social strata. The significance of dice games extends beyond mere entertainment; they were also intertwined with religious and magical beliefs, appearing in sculptures and paintings. This indicates the multifaceted role that such games played in ancient Indian culture.
4) Toys and Play Objects
Brewster discusses the presence of toys and playthings in ancient India, connecting them to various games mentioned earlier. He highlights early toys from the Indus Valley Civilization and notes how many games, including those involving toy carts and windmills, remain a part of modern Indian children's play. The continuity of these play objects suggests a shared cultural legacy that has transcended time. Furthermore, the playful elements described, such as making toy ploughs and participating in activities with simple natural materials, reflect how children's games have always served as avenues for creativity and community interaction.
5) Conclusion
Brewster's exploration of the list of games in the Brahma-jala Sutta provides insightful reflections on the cultural practices of ancient India regarding leisure and play. Through examining board games, dice games, and toys, he reveals how these activities have evolved yet retained their essence through centuries. The teachings of the Buddha caution against distractions from spiritual growth, yet the persistence of these games illustrates their importance in the social fabric of Indian life. Ultimately, the study of these ancient pastimes contributes to a richer understanding of humanity's enduring relationship with play and amusement across cultures and eras.
FAQ section (important questions/answers):
What ancient text contains a list of games mentioned by Buddha?
The Pali Brahma-jala Sutta contains a valuable list of games that the Buddha objects to, believed to date back to the fifth century B.C.
What are Ashtapada and Dasapada games mentioned in the text?
Ashtapada and Dasapada are ancient Indian board games with 8 or 10 squares used for gameplay, typically played with cowrie shells to determine moves.
What does 'Gilli-Danda' involve in terms of gameplay?
Gilli-Danda involves two sticks: a smaller one (gilli) that is hit with a larger stick (danda). Players score by hitting and running, while others try to catch the gilli.
What type of games are mentioned under numerals 9 to 15?
Numerals 9 to 15 refer to various traditional toys and pastimes, including playing with toy windmills, carts, and bows, which are still present in modern Indian children's play.
How does the game Chikri Billa operate?
Chikri Billa involves tossing a brickbat into compartments and hopping through them without stepping on lines. Players score by successfully completing all compartments.
What concerns does Buddha express about game playing?
Buddha comments that the mental faculties required for games, like concentration, should be directed toward more meaningful pursuits rather than playing.
Glossary definitions and references:
Oriental and Historical glossary list for “The earliest known list of games: Some comments”. This list explains important keywords that occur in this article and links it to the glossary for a better understanding of that concept in the context of History, Linguistics, Religion, Philosophy, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism etc.
1) Game:
Game refers to structured forms of play, often aimed at entertainment or competition. In the context of ancient Indian culture, games like Ashtapada and Gilli-Danda reflect societal values, social interaction, and cognitive skills like memory and strategy, as discussed in the Pali Brahma-jala Sutta, where the Buddha comments on various amusements.
2) Indian:
Indian pertains to the cultural and historical context of India, embodying its rich traditions, languages, and practices. The text discusses games, toys, and pastimes that have roots in Indian culture, showcasing how these activities have evolved through centuries and their significance in everyday life and societal norms.
3) India:
India is the geographical and cultural setting for the games mentioned in the text. It represents a civilization with ancient traditions, where games like Ashtapada and Gilli-Danda not only provided entertainment but also reflected philosophical teachings of figures like the Buddha, emphasizing moral virtues over trivial pursuits.
4) Danda (Damda):
Danda refers to the stick used in the game Gilli-Danda. This toy embodies simple yet strategic play, where players hit a smaller stick (gilli) with a larger one (danda). The game is a representation of childhood play in India, promoting coordination and physical activity among children.
5) Foot (Feet):
Foot signifies the basic anatomical component involved in many games focused on movement. Its mention emphasizes physicality in play, illustrating the necessary agility and coordination children develop through various recreational activities, reinforcing the fundamental connection between body and gameplay.
6) Ashtapada (Astapada, Ashtan-pada):
Ashtapada is an ancient Indian board game with eight squares, mentioned in the Buddha’s dialogues. It exemplifies strategic play involving memory and concentration. The game serves as a historical artifact illustrating how games have been a form of social interaction, skill development, and transmission of cultural values.
7) Buddha:
Buddha represents the spiritual leader whose teachings inform the values in the text. His critique of various games highlights a philosophical stance advocating for mindfulness and deeper pursuits over frivolous amusements, suggesting that engagement in meaningful activities leads to spiritual and personal growth.
8) Leaf (Leaves):
Leaves symbolize natural materials used in crafting toys, including windmills or pipes, as mentioned in the text. This highlights resourcefulness in ancient Indian culture, where children made their own playthings, reflecting creativity and connection with the environment inherent in traditional Indian play.
9) King:
King references powerful figures in Indian history and mythology, reflecting authority and societal structures where games and competitions were often influenced by royal patronage. The discussion includes kingly traditions found in texts like Harivamsa, illustrating how games were a microcosm of broader sociopolitical dynamics.
10) Heap:
Heap refers to the piles or collections of pieces in games like Jackstraws or Gilli-Danda. It signifies organization and strategy in gameplay, where players must carefully extract pieces without disturbing the others, demonstrating not only skill but also patience and focus essential in such games.
11) Palm:
Palm refers to the hand's surface utilized in various games, illustrating tactile play. Activities like Ravan tolla involve tossing and striking, emphasizing coordination and dexterity in childhood play, and highlighting physical engagement, which is foundational for skill and cognitive development in children.
12) Child (Children):
Child signifies the focal point of play, where games serve as foundational experiences for growth and learning. Its mention highlights the importance of recreational activities in shaping childhood, encouraging social interaction, cognitive development, and the transmission of cultural values through play across generations.
13) Phallus (Phalli):
Phalli refers to units of score in the game chikri billä, representing the competitive aspect of play. Scoring systems in games illustrate not only rules and structure but also the importance of achievement and recognition in play, integral to the social dynamics between children.
14) Finger:
Finger embodies dexterity and precision in activities requiring manipulation, such as guessing or drawing in games. Its mention highlights manual skills essential for gameplay, promoting cognitive engagement and social interaction in traditional games, aligning with the reverence for skillful play in ancient cultures.
15) Bhata:
Bhata refers to the game of boiled rice and vegetables, likening to the contemporary version of games like chikri billä. Its reference demonstrates the continuity of traditional games, where names and methods evolve but the core of social interaction through games remains a vital part of the cultural landscape.
16) Pali (Palin):
Pali is the language in which early Buddhist texts are written, including the Brahma-jala Sutta. Its mention signifies the textual tradition that preserves reflections on games, philosophy, and morality, crucial for understanding ancient Indian thought and the cultural significance of play.
17) Vibhitaka:
Vibhitaka is a type of ancient dice game mentioned in the context of gambling and play in India. Its inclusion showcases the historical depth of gaming in Indian culture, illustrating the entertainment and social commentary stemming from such activities emphasized in literature and religious texts.
18) Dice-game:
Dice-game signifies a significant category of games involving chance, prevalent in ancient Indian society. Such games were not only means of leisure but also involved deep societal reflections on fate, luck, and morality, as seen in Buddhist and Jain literature where gambling issues are discussed.
19) Painting:
Painting relates to the visual representations of games, like those discovered in archaeology that depict children playing. Visual culture serves as historical evidence of play, illuminating how artistic expressions intersect with social activities in ancient societies, including gaming and recreational practices.
20) Dialogue:
Dialogue refers to the conversational aspects of texts where Buddha discusses games, emphasizing the moral implications and societal observations. This highlights the teaching method in Buddhism, using discussions of common pastimes to convey deeper philosophies, thus integrating cultural practices with ethical contemplation.
21) Buddhism (Buddhist tradition):
Buddhist pertains to the foundation of teachings attributed to the Buddha, shaping the philosophical framework addressing human behavior, including play. The critique of games reflects a broader ethos regarding distractions from spiritual pursuits, underlining the relationship between cultural practices and moral development in society.
22) Brahmin:
Brahmin refers to the priestly caste in ancient Indian society, often associated with wisdom and religious duties. The mention of Brahmin in connection with games like bhata illustrates how social structures influence recreational practices, highlighting differing roles and ideologies in traditional Indian life.
23) Khela:
Khela translates to 'games' or 'play' in Bengali, representing the linguistic and cultural diversity of India. Its use emphasizes the regional variations in play and the communal aspect of games, indicating their significance in strengthening social bonds across different cultural backgrounds.
24) Bombay:
Bombay (now Mumbai) is a major urban center embodying the cosmopolitan culture of India. Its mention ties the historical roots of games and toys to a contemporary setting, illustrating the continuity and evolution of recreational choices within the vibrant tapestry of Indian life.
25) Ceylon:
Ceylon, now known as Sri Lanka, is closely associated with shared cultural and historical influences with India. The references to games suggest regional similarities and variations in play traditions, underscoring a broader South Asian cultural framework that reflects historical interactions and exchanges.
26) Billa:
Billa refers to segments of traditional games in India, like chickri billä, where physical skill and playful strategies are employed. Its mention illustrates the tactile nature of Indian pastimes, emphasizing the engagement of children in physical activities vital for social and motor skill development.
27) Stupa (Shtupa):
Stupa represents Buddhist architectural structures that house relics. Mentioning stupas reflects the integration of recreational and spiritual life, illustrating how cultural practices like gaming are deeply intertwined with religious beliefs and societal values in ancient Indian civilization.
28) Ganga (Gamga, Ganga°):
Ganga, referring to the sacred river in India, symbolizes the spiritual significance attributed to natural elements. Its mention in relation to games like šake-bhata-khela reflects the cultural ties between recreational activities, spirituality, and the religious journeys that permeate Indian society.
29) Horse:
Horse represents an element of play found within miniature toys and games, indicating the significance of animal figures in ancient recreational practices. The reference to horses connects to a broader understanding of societal values, where hunting and riding were integral aspects of Indian culture.
30) Magic:
Magic signifies the enchanting allure games hold, often imbued with cultural symbolism. In the context of traditional Indian games, it evokes the mystical elements that challenge cognitive boundaries, linking to themes in Buddhist teachings where the ephemeral nature of life is explored metaphorically through play.
31) Ivory:
Ivory refers to the material used in ancient dice and game pieces, symbolizing luxury and craftsmanship. Its mention highlights the economic aspects of gaming in Indian society, showcasing how materials used in games reflect social stratification and artistic skills prevalent in historical contexts.
32) Colour (Color):
Color pertains to the visual aesthetics of games and toys, where vibrant colors enhance the appeal. The reference to color underscores the creativity inherent in children's play practices, suggesting that such elements are integral to cultural expression within the realm of recreational activities.
33) River:
River invokes imagery of natural landscapes where games may have occurred, reflecting the connection between play and environment. The reference hints at the significance of geographical features in shaping cultural practices, illustrating how natural settings provide spaces for recreational activities across societies.
34) Demon:
Demon relates to mythology and storytelling in Indian literature, where figures representing chaos and moral challenges appear. The reference to demons in relation to games signifies the broader existential themes explored in narratives, highlighting moral lessons intertwined with recreational practices.
35) Nala:
Nala, a character from Indian mythology, embodies themes of virtue, loss, and redemption. His connection to games reflects the intertwining of personal narratives and recreational activities in culture, where storytelling enriches the societal understanding of gameplay's psychological and moral implications.
36) Pari:
Pari, meaning fairy or angel, suggests themes of enchantment and imaginative play in Indian lore. The reference to such figures within games illustrates how folklore and mythology interweave with childhood play, enhancing the imaginative landscape and teaching moral values through storytelling.
37) Rice (Rce):
Rice symbolizes sustenance and cultural practices centered around food, illustrated through games like bhata associated with boiled rice. Its mention indicates the significance of everyday life elements in playful activities, showcasing how basic sustenance forms a backdrop to shared societal experiences through games.
38) Clay:
Clay refers to the material used historically to make toys and items played by children. Its mention emphasizes the handmade nature of traditional Indian playthings, highlighting a blend of creativity, resourcefulness, and cultural heritage passed down through generations within children's play.
39) Wall painting:
Wall painting refers to the ancient art form reflecting cultural practices and activities, including games. Its mention highlights the relationship between artistic expression and social play, showcasing how visual depictions serve not only as decoration but also as historical documentation of childhood and societal customs.
40) Middle finger:
Middle finger reflects anatomical references in games involving gestures and interactions. Its inclusion signifies the nuances of communication in play activities, demonstrating how body language enhances engagement and social dynamics among children within recreational contexts.
41) Indus Valley:
Indus Valley symbolizes one of the earliest civilizations known for its advanced urban culture. The reference highlights archaeological findings related to toys and games, illustrating the long-standing tradition of play in human society, emphasizing continuity from ancient to contemporary forms of recreational activities.
42) Kathasaritsagara:
Kathasaritsagara is an ancient text rich with storytelling and folklore. Its mention signifies the cultural context in which games are embedded, showcasing how narratives intertwined with play enhance moral teachings and societal reflections, providing insights into the human experience through recreational forms.
43) Mohenjo-daro (Mohenjodaro):
Mohenjo-daro represents one of the key archaeological sites of the Indus Valley Civilization. Its mention underlines the historical context of childhood play, where findings demonstrate the significance of toys and games in understanding ancient societies, highlighting the evolutionary aspect of play in human culture.
44) Civilization:
Civilization signifies advanced societies marked by cultural, spiritual, and social development. Its mention in the context of games reflects the integral role of play in social cohesion, revealing how entertainment activities like those discussed foster community ties and cultural continuity throughout history.
45) Afghanistan:
Afghanistan is referenced in connection to archaeological discoveries like the ivory plaque depicting games. This highlights the geographical spread of cultural exchanges and similarities in playful practices throughout South Asia, showcasing how histories are interlinked across regions through shared traditions and artifacts.
46) Brahmajala (Brahma-jala):
Brahma-jala refers to the text containing philosophical discourse by the Buddha, where games are discussed. Its mention illustrates the role of literature in framing ethical considerations regarding leisure activities, intertwining religious teachings with cultural practices surrounding games and their impact on personal pursuits.
47) Literature:
Literature encompasses written works that reflect human experiences, including games as subjects of discussion. The references to various texts signify the interplay between written tradition and cultural practices, highlighting how narratives shape perceptions of play and contribute to societal values across time.
48) Harivamsha (Harivamsa, Hari-vamsha):
Harivamsa is an ancient Indian text that narrates the life of Lord Krishna. Mentioning it emphasizes the storytelling aspect intertwined with games, showcasing how mythology and cultural heritage inform playful practices, enhancing the understanding of historical values, beliefs, and social dynamics in ancient Indian society.
49) Ploughing:
Ploughing refers to the agricultural practice symbolizing sustenance and productivity. Its mention in conjunction with toys reflects a child's engagement with agrarian themes, highlighting how traditional games often emulate adult activities, providing opportunities for learning and understanding within the context of play.
50) Imagining:
Imagining conveys the creative aspects of play, where children visualize scenarios and roles. Its mention underscores the cognitive development that accompanies playful activities, inviting exploration of fantasy and reality, and forming a critical bridge in childhood learning through imaginative engagement in games.
51) Somadeva:
Somadeva refers to the author of the Kathasaritsagara, contributing rich narratives and folklore. His mention highlights the literary tradition's role in shaping cultural understanding of play, showcasing how storytelling enhances moral lessons and reflects societal values through recreational practices in ancient India.
52) Balarama (Bala-rama):
Balarama relates to mythological figures within Indian epics, representing strength and valour. His mention alongside games signifies the intertwining of folklore with recreational practices, showcasing how tales of heroic personas enrich children's play, providing lessons in virtues and moral conduct through engagement.
53) Pushkara (Puskara):
Pushkara, another mythological figure, often appears in stories where moral dilemmas are explored. His connection to games signifies how characters embody ethical lessons, reinforcing the idea that play is a vessel for imparting cultural wisdom and moral reflection through mythological narratives.
54) Brahmana:
Brahmana refers to the priestly caste in ancient India, often seen as custodians of rituals and sacred knowledge. Its inclusion illustrates the societal structures that influenced cultural practices like gaming, hinting at the intersection of religion, play, and social duties within ancient Indian civilization.
55) Mountain:
Mountain symbolizes challenges and achievements often echoed in the metaphors of games. Its narrative suggests the dynamics of progression in recreational activities, reflecting not only physical journeys in play but also allegorical insights into overcoming obstacles, relevant in both games and life experiences.
56) Religion:
Religion signifies belief systems that often intersect with cultural practices like gaming. The mention highlights how recreational activities serve as conduits for spiritual teachings and ethical standards, illustrating the moral implications of play within the broader context of cultural and religious identity.
57) Graceful:
Graceful pertains to the nature of activities like ball games, emphasizing aesthetic movements associated with children’s play. Its mention highlights the artistry conveyed in simple games, where coordination and beauty merge in the representation of leisure, enhancing social interaction among young participants.
58) Shoulder:
Shoulder relates to body mechanics integral to gameplay, often referenced in discussions of physical activity. Its inclusion suggests the significance of anatomy in facilitating movement and engagement in games, emphasizing the body's role in enabling effective participation in traditional pastimes.
59) Crossing (Cross over):
Crossing signifies movement and overcoming barriers, reflected in games that involve traversal or escaping obstacles. Its mention alludes to the themes of progress and success prevalent in play narratives, where children navigate physical and metaphorical challenges inherent in traditional games.
60) Festival:
Festival represents communal celebrations often marked by collective games and activities. Its mention connects the significance of cultural festivities with recreational practices, illustrating how play facilitates social cohesion, reinforcing bonds and shared experiences within the community during rituals and celebrations.
61) Kindness:
Kindness references benign gestures often encouraged in gameplay, promoting social values among children. Its mention underscores the moral framework within which games operate, suggesting that the spirit of generosity and cooperation can enhance communal bonds and collective enjoyment in recreational activities.
62) Identity:
Identity pertains to how individuals relate to cultural practices like gaming. The reference signifies the role games play in shaping social identities, reflecting cultural heritage, norms, and values while providing a space for personal expression and social interaction within the framework of tradition.
63) Kanduka (Kamduka):
Kanduka refers to a traditional ball game, symbolizing playful yet communal engagement. Its mention illustrates how games facilitate learning and social bonding among children, reinforcing the notion that such playful practices are integral to developmental experiences within various cultural settings.
64) Upavita:
Upavita refers to the sacred thread worn by Brahmins, symbolizing status and religious duties. Its mention in conjunction with games illustrates the intersection of social and religious identities reflected in play, evoking the significance of cultural symbols and traditions within childhood experiences.
65) Rigveda (Rgveda, Rig-Veda, Ric-veda):
Rigveda symbolizes ancient Indian literature rich with hymns and philosophical reflections. Its mention highlights the enduring themes of human behavior, including gambling and play, showcasing how early texts inform contemporary understanding of societal morals and the role of recreational activities through historical contexts.
66) Chandra:
Chandra can refer to the moon or celestial bodies, often embodying themes of beauty and mystique. In the context of games, its mention adds depth to cultural narratives, illustrating how elements of nature influence imagination and storytelling within recreational practices and childhood experiences.
67) Sinhala:
Sinhala refers to the ethnic group in Sri Lanka, representing cultural connections with India. Its mention relates to the commonalities in recreational practices and narratives, underscoring shared heritage and traditions within South Asian contexts, where games serve as a bridge between cultures.
68) Bengali:
Bengali refers to the linguistic and cultural group in India, reflecting regional diversity in games and play. Its mention emphasizes the significance of local traditions in shaping recreational choices, showcasing how cultural expressions influence children's play practices and community interactions.
69) Aravan:
A-ravan suggests the concept of deception or trickery inherent in games like Gilli-Danda. Its mention highlights the playful elements of strategy and cunning involved in recreational activities, suggesting that such qualities can serve as lessons in critical thinking and social dynamics during play.
70) Chariot:
Chariot represents vehicles often found in children's play, symbolizing speed and adventure. Its mention in the context of toys underscores the creative engagement children have with elements of their culture, offering insight into how historical and mythological aspects are reflected in their recreational practices.
71) Devotion (Devoted):
Devoted signifies commitment to cultural practices, including gaming traditions in India. Its mention illustrates the emotional and social investment children place in playful activities, reinforcing the significance of play in shaping identity, community bonds, and cultural continuity through shared experiences.
72) Put (Putting):
Putting involves the action of placing objects in specific positions, central to many games. Its mention highlights the strategic elements within play, emphasizing how children develop skills like precision and planning, essential for successful engagement in various recreational activities.
73) Dvapara (Dwapar):
Dvapara refers to a mythological age associated with specific narratives and moral lessons. Its mention in relation to games signifies the interconnectedness of storytelling, ethics, and play in Indian culture, illustrating how recreational activities often reflect deeper societal values and historical themes.
74) Sagara:
Sagara denotes the ocean or sea in ancient texts, symbolizing vastness and exploration. Its mention in gaming context suggests how themes of journey and challenge found in play connect to broader narratives prevalent in Indian literature, enhancing the richness of cultural practices through allegory.
75) Kamala (Kama-la):
Kamala may refer to beauty or deity, often associated with themes of grace and aesthetics. Its mention within the context of games reflects cultural representation of feminine qualities, hinting at how traditional play practices encompass gendered narratives that shape social understanding among children.
[Note: The above list is limited to 75. Total glossary definitions available: 118]