11. Architecture and Town Planning (in ancient India)

The Jaina tradition accredits Usabha for the laying down the foundations of civilization in the Bharahavasa. It was at the time of his consecration that In Indra asked Kubera to construct a city. The city was called Viniya, after the modesty of the subjects of Usabha 2. his lifetime hundred cities and kingdoms were established 3. The spread of this civilization seems to have been hastened by the kings born in the line of king Hari. A list of kings from Hari to Sori and Vira, who were responsible for the construction of various cities also appears in the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa4. Prosperous Cities : The city, planned and constructed by god Dhanada for Usabha, has been described to be of rectangular plan. 1. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, 1.43b. 2. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 162. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid., 357, also 111.

431 It was nine Yojanas in breadth and twelve Yojanas in length. Similar measurements have also been given in the description of the city of Dvaraka, the plan and construction of which also was to the credit of god Kubera². Viisoga was of the same measurements³. The city of Ilavaddhana has been described as 'worth comparison with the extent of Dhanata (Dhanatopamana) 4), i.e. with Dhanada's city. Rajagiha is described as one 'comparable to the residence of gods' (devagihovama) 5. All these descriptions of the various cities associated with mythological heroes reveal the same ancient belief. that every sacred city is a copy of the city of the gods. In this connection it can be noted that it is possible to get at the significance of the particular measurements of the length and breadth of the city which is given as twelve by nine Yojanas. It should also be noted that such measurements of cities are to be met with in the descriptions offered by the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa City Planning : Some of the salient features in city planning, as seen from the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, were the pleasure gardens outside 1. Ibid., 162. 2. Ibid., 78. 3. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 321. 4. Ibid., 218. 5. Ibid., 247. 6. Ibid., 350.

the city, the moat, the rampart and the wards. 432 Gardens : Gardens, both private and public¹, were reared outside the city. These were used as sites for temples ², and as pleasure grounds by revelers at the time of 2 festivities ³ (ujjanajatta). The gardens were also resorted to by Jaina ascetics for residential 4 and other purposes like assemblies for preaching, and practicing penance" 5 A private garden in the vicinity of Rayagiha is described to have been provided with temporary constructions of mud (puhavi-pada-mamdava)? embellished by cloth drapery. The Ramparts : Several cities referred to in the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa,e.g., Rayagiha³, Viisoga⁹, Baravai 10 and Ilavaddhana are described to have been equipped with ramparts. The rampart of Rayagiha was high (tumga) and one which aroused fear 1. Ibid.; also p.77. 3. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 640 5. Ibid., 177. 7. Ibid., 350. 9. Ibid., 321. 2. Ibid., 82, 133. 4. Ibid., 129. 6. Ibid., 34. 8. Ibid., 2. 10. Ibid., 77. 11. Ibid., 218.

433 in the mind of the adversaries (paraniyabhayada)-. The rampart of Viisoga city has been described to be of white colour 2 while that of Baravai has been stated to be of gold (camikara) 3. It is obvious that the defences of the cities which were nine Yojanas broad and twelve Yojanas long were rectangular in shape. Moat : Moat (salila-khata) surrounding the rampart was a quasi-natural measure of defence, and is described to be very broad (Vitthaya) and deep (duravagadha) 4. The city of Kosambi had also such a moat (khai) 5. The excavations at Kausambi and Ujjain have brought to light the existence 1. Ibid., 2. 2. Ibid., 321; In the excavations at the old cities of Kausambi, Ujjain, etc., the rampart was exposed. Its 'revetment was covered by 2" to 3" thick plaster composed of mud and lime'; see Sharma, G.R., The Excavations at Kausambi (1957-59),p.27. The rampart of Kollaira city has been described to be similar to the 'silver mountain'; Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 355. 3. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 77. 5. Ibid., 39. 4. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 2.

moats¹. of such moats' Gateway : 434 The rampart of the city was provided with more than one gate. In the story of Jambu it is described how after seeing the traffic jam in one city gate (nayara-duvara) Jambu asked his charioteer to take the chariot to another gate 2. Though the doors of city gate (purakavada) were of standard dimension especially as regards loftiness ³, it seems that at least some of the gates of a city were quite narrow. The city gate of Rayanapura was of such a type: at a time it allowed passage only for one vehicle 4. Sometimes the gates were provided with defensive weapons as was the case with one of the city-gates of Rayagiha. Jambu noticed the weapons which were suspended with rope over the gate, and included 1. See Sharma, G.R., op. cit., p. 38-39. For other cities with moats, see Sankalia, H.D., "Houses and Habitations through the Ages", BDCRI, Vol. XX, pp.159-162. 2. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 3. 3. Ibid., 170. 4. Ibid., 166. The gates revealed in the excavations at Sisupalgarh seems to be fairly wide%3B 'they are each 13' wide 3B Sankalia, op.cit., p. 162.

490 435 stones, satagghi and kalacakkas¹. The city gate was also 2 called gopura, probably because of its defensive nature ³. Wards and Roads : The city was conventionally divided into various wards which were inhabited in groups by people of the various strata. Samba's friend noticed the ward of courtezans (ganikavasa) in the city of Dvaraka. A trader in Bhaddilapura informed Amsumamta that he lived in the northern street (uttara vihi) 5 of the city. 6 A town had also an apanavihi, i.e. a market street, and rajamagga?, i.e. king's street. The latter was fairly big as to allow 8 elephants to pass. Only rich and prominent persons in the city could afford to have a house on the king's way (rayamagga). The meeting places of roads were called aras 10 on the basis of simghadaya, tiya, caukka and caccaras the number of streets meeting there. 1. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 3. 2. Ibid., 218. 3. See Datta, B.B., Town Planning in Ancient India, pp. 99-100. 4. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 102. 6. Ibid., 210. 8. Ibid., 2. 10. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 36. 5. Ibid., 209. 7. Ibid., 211. 9. Ibid., 54, 211.

Cremation Ground : 436 The cremation ground had no place in the city proper, but was situated away from it¹. So also many times the citizens were forced to go out of the city to answer the calls of nature, as stated in the case of the city of Girinagara². Town Planning in the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa : The Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa more or less gives 'the same details about city-planning while describing various cities. According to the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, the city of Savatthi had on its outskirts the kotthagujjana wherein was situated a temple to commemorate the birth of the third Tirthakara in the city. The city was frequented by citizens to amuse themselves³. Similarly the city of Saketa was adorned with various types of gardens and preserved forest on its outskirts (arama-vividha-kananujiana- guvila vanasamda-mamdiyam) 4 and various types of water reservoirs - 1. Ibid., 120; see also Arthasastra, II.4.21; and Ghosh, A., Rajgir, P. 11. 2. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 50. 4. Ibid., II.158b. 3. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, 1.9a.

437 (vara-vavi-ppapina-talaga-pukkharini-dihiya) ¹. The city of Suvannamamjari had a rampart and gopuras' 2 , while Sageya had in addition to the ramport, gopuras displaying weapons ³. The city of Cilatavaddhana had its city gate decorated with an arch (--pagaradaratorana-) and valabhi 4. There is a very graphic description of the rayamagga of Varanasi at evening time, in the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa 5. Roads meant for elephants and horses (kari-turagapatha) and the caukka and caccara of cities have been described as getting crowded in the autumnb. The Villages : Like the city the village also was surrounded by preserved forests (vanasamda) or provided with park 7 1. Ibid., 2. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, I.18a. 3. Ibid., II.158b; description of gopuras of a city being equipped with defensive weapons is also to be met with in the Sangam literature; See Kanakasabhai V The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago, P. 130. • 4. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II.147. 6. Ibid., I.16b. 5. Ibid., II.187b-188b. 7. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 21.

438 having a temple (ujjana cetiya) 1, wells and lakes 3 (vavi-pukkharini) 2 and a defence wall ³ sometimes of mud (vappiya-)4. The difference in a village and a city was mainly because of big market places, and parks. Disasamvaha, an industrial town (kammamtavavara), is described to be looking like a town because of the market place and the gardens 5. The Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa has nothing to say much about the habitational arrangement of the village, but notes in its description of autumn at one place, that the roads. in villages (gamaraccha) were all occupied by animals as all the vehicles had been out on journey (vippayata) while the roads meant for elephants and horses and the were all busy with traffic 6. cross-road (Caukka-caccura The Palace : The palace of a king, as can be very well observed from the evidence of the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, was a group of interconnected buildings and structures. In the palace 1. Ibid., 196. 3. Ibid., 196. 2. Ibid., 182; also 21. 4. Ibid., 21. 5. Ibid., 145. 6. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, I.16b.

439 of Kanha Vasudeva, the queens were allotted independent buildings (pasaya) situated in various directions of the main building. These buildings together were sometimes provided with a moat' and also possibly with a rampart which was generally associated with the former. The main gate to the palace was decorated with a wreathed arch (sukayatoranamalam) ³, which was followed by a big 3 courtyard 4. The palace was also provided with a pleasure garden (pamadavana ) 5, which was provided with wells, arbours of creepers and plantain trees (laya-jala-ghara, kayalighara), which were used as pleasure-houses (mohanaghara) 7 and groves of Ashoka trees (asoyavaniya)8 In the precincts of the palace was situated a swimming pool wherein were constructed platforms (?) of the shape of various water-birds from where the swimmer jumped (paviyavvajoggani). Reference to Vasudeva's playing on such a wooden goose (katthakalahamsa) is to be found in the same context 9. There was place also for one of 1. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 78-80. 3. Ibid., 205. 5. Ibid., 7. Ibid., 359. 9. Ibid., 358. 2. Ibid., 10. 4. Ibid., 165. 6. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 353. 8. Ibid., 353.

onn the pet animals of the king in one of the courtyards of the palace (rayamgana) 1 Layout of the Palace : The palace proper was divided into two parts : 5 6 bahirovatthana² and abbhimtarovatthana³. In the outer audience hall (bahirovatthana) xx also referred to as Sabha, sirimamdava or or atthani, the king attended to his day-to-day administrative, judicial and other work. In the inner audience hall (abbhintarovatthana or devopatthana) 7 of the king only the most distinguished persons and personal acquaintances had the privilege to meet the king 8. The residential quarters of the king in the palace were referred to as narimdabhavana where the king lived with the queens, the residence of the old ladies (junnamteura) in the family and the princesses quarter 1. e.g. a deer; Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 362. 2. Here the king was attended upon by courtezans who were permitted to enter the palace; Ibid., 103. 3. Ibid., 103, 179-80, 281. 5. Ibid., 299. 7. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 102-03. 4. Ibid., 329-30. 6. Ibid., 83. 8. Ibid., 179-80, 281; See also 253.

441 (kannamteura) being away, if not separate, from the king's personal quarters¹. The occupants of the inner have gathered appartments of the palace are described togather in the grilled windows of vitardikas (vitaddiya-jalamtarani) and in gavakkhas and vatayanas to have a look at the guests arriving in the outer courtyard of the palace 2. The various appartments meant for specialised purposes in the palace, such as a room used for observing 3 posaha(-sala) ³ room for armoury (auhaghara) 1/2); a dressing 4 room (ayamsaghara) 5 a gymnasium (vayamasala), pecchaghara 7, bhoyana mamdava and a construction of four rooms 8 1. Ibid., 283, 307. There is no direct evidence to hold that the princesses' quarters were away from the palace. But the fact that Vasudeva could live unnoticed in Princess Piyamgusamdari's quarters supports such a view. also See Agrawala, V.S., KESA, 182, 368. 2. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 203, 281. From the balcony (oloyanaga) of amteura one could see what was going on on the road;BVh(P),9,357. 3. Ibid., 97. 5. Ibid., 341. 4. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 340 6. Ibid., 233. 7. Ibid., 179-80; a sort of a drawing room, ibid., TH.276. 8. Ibid., 204.

442 built around an open courtyard (causala, abbhimtarilla, 1 have also been referred to. The sleeping chamber in the palace is referred to as vasagiha? Sanitation : In the story of the trader Latitamgada, reference is made to the soak-pits (amejjha-kuva) in the palace. These were used to dump all the dirt of the palace and were joined with the moat, situated probably outside the palace. In the same story it is described how in the rainy season servants from the palace opened the pit as it was filled with rain water and how Laliyamgaya, 3 trapped inside was drifted away to the moat ³. Palace as described in the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa : of palaces. In the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa we get more lengthy descriptions The best examples which can be cited here are those of the Mahavejayamta pasada of Mamdaradeva, of a palace in a lake, and of the palace of king Haricamda of Pedhalapura. The Mahavejayamta palace is described to have 1. Ibid., 73, the same a caturamtaya, ibid.; 73. 3. ibid.%; 9. 2. Ioid.%; 180, 224, 351.

443 an arch with pairs of elephants, lions and vidyadharas depicted on it. It was decorated with rows of bells studded with jewels, and had windows of various types, such as vatayana, gavakkha and jala. On the sikhara of the palace was hoisted a flag and was attached a row of pennons. The sikhara was capped with a parasol (cchatta) of the shape of a nundred petalled lotus. The palace was provided with a camdasaliya. On the walls of rooms were painted various animals and heavenly beings. The ceiling was supported by hundreds of salabhamjika pillars, and the floor was decorated with precious 'stones (manikuttima) 1. In the description of the palace built in a lake, the lake is described to be abounding in platforms decorated with lotus plants and provided with a flight of steps with a railing (alambana). The palace is described to be of the shape of a small vimana, and white in colour like a pundariya lotus. In the middle of it was a pillar of beryl, on which was hoisted a flag. The approach to it was made of chonches (samkhapaha) and it was provided with a railing (?) (salambana) 2. 1. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II. 147ab. 2. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, I. 13b.

444 Haricamda's Palace : The author of the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa describes the palace of Haricamda in great details. In its descriptions, he tells that the entrance to the kings palace was crowded with horses, elephants, chariots and warriors. The gate was decorated with siri-salabhamjika and various other paintings. The seven courtyards (kacchamtara) of the palace had floors (kottima) of seven different types, viz. tella-, pacaramda- (i.e. pamcaradana-?), khira-, jala-, paumapattaka-, maragada-paumasara-, pamasa and samkhagara kottima. These courtyards were used for different purposes and were looked after by servants of different categories. The first courtyard was occupied by maidens who receipted Bharada's treatise on natya; in the second were constructed small temples (devayatana); while in the third was deposited harness meant for elephants and horses. In the fourth courtyard were hung cages of pet birds, and in the fifth were deposited the sobha karanas(?), The sixth courtyard was used as a For store-room furniture, garments, wines and juttis. n In the seventh was to be seen the royal firniture and ornaments of flowers. Beyond the seven courtyards was situated the seven-storied palace of princess Kanagavai

445 in the centre of the pleasure garden¹. From the various descriptions of palaces 3 as given in the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa one can form a general idea about a palace. It was provided with a rampart (gharapagara and a gopura (or gopuras ?) ³ which led to the coutyard of the palace 4. Outside the rampart was constructed an anadhasala, wherein travellers and the destitutes were provided shelter and given food from the royal kitchen 5. Apart from the main entrance, the palace was provided 6 with small entrances (rayabhavanapadiduvara) which were protected by the door-keepers. 2 1. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II, 55-57; The description of a palace with six courtyards is to be met with in the Mrcchakatika. The palace of Kadambari was situated beyond the seven kaksyas of the palace; See Agrawala, V.S., KESA, p.182-85 2. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II. 64b%3B II. 20a. 3. Ibid.; II. 20a. 4. Ibid.; II. 207b. 5. Ibid.; II. 64b. Construction of an anahasala by [P.368] Vasudeva has been referred to in the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa However it is not known whether it was connected with the palace. 6. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, Il. 189a.

446 Parts of a palace : The various parts of the palace were bahira kacchal, pecchagharamamdava², vasaghara³ and suvaka ra-sala 4%. The topmost storey was hammiya which had living rooms (avasaga) 5, sleeping chamber 6 and open space with small platforms (hammiyatalavedika) 7. The palace was provided with balconies (oloyanaga) 8, and windows of gavakkha and jula type 9. A point worthy of mention is the use of curtains (javaniya) in the palace. In the inner appartments also, the ladies remained behind the curtain when the king received some guests' 10. 1. Ibid.; II. 32b; bahirovatthana, ibid., I. 9a; atthani, ibid., II. 141b. 2. Ibid.; II. 204b. 3. Ibid.; II. 101b, 162a; also vasaghara-jala mtara, II. 189b. gabbhaghara, ibid.; I. 38a. 4. Ibid.%; II. 72a. 6. Ibid., 102-03. 8. Ibid., I. 7b. 10.Ibid., II. 203b. 5. Ibid.%; II. 130b. 7. Ibid., I. 17b. 9. Ibid., II. 207b.

447 Temporary structures Reference to temporary structures of mud and cloth (pudhavi padamamdava) in gardens has already been made. In the story of Dhammilla there is a description of a picnic (ujjanajatta) arranged by the prince of Campa. The servants of the prince pitched tents (dusakudi) erected mamdavas of atula (without a beam) type and closets with curtains (padisara) 1. Temporary structures were also erected at the time of Sayamvara. These were supported en many pillars - hundred or thousand - and were decorated with wreaths of golden flowers. On both sides of arch at the entrance were placed pitchers with lotuses. On the floor of the mamdava were strewn flowers of five colours 2. In Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa a mamdava, erected at the time of sayamvara has been described to have an arch with wreaths of wild flowers, vejayamti banners, bells, and pennons. It also had the auspicious symbols of sotthiya, sirivaccha namdiyavatta, vaddhamana-kalasa, and maccha-juvala, and was decorated with the motif of different animals ³. 3 1. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 64. 3. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II.60a%; also II-37a. 2. Ibid., 313-14, 327.

448 The pandal erected at the time of the anointing ceremony of Vasudeva is described to have been supported by hundred pillars with salabhamjika motif. The pandal was beautified with pennons of five colours¹. A marriage pandal designated as cittabhumma had a platform (vedi) inside. Outside, near the entrance, were placed new pitchers (kalasa) 2. Erection of tents in gardens at the time of festivals is also referred to ³. Houses : No difference can be discerned in the houses of the rich, which are also termed as pasaya, and the palace of a king. The house of a rich person had the 4 5 6 inner and outer audience halls and, cauramtaga like a 7 a palace. A pasaya of a setthi has been described to be of seven storeys with an attalaga at the top 7. The residence of a courtezan had an arch infront of her house like the palace of the king. 8 1. Ibid., II.133b. 2. Ibid., II.226b. 3. Ibid., II.216b. 5. Ibid., 156. 7. Ibid., 51. 4. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 281. 6. Ibid., 132-33. 8. Ibid., 102.

449 The sleeping chamber in a house was called vasa giha or gabbhagiha². In the vasagiha of a courtezan's house, flowers were strewn on the floor and a pearl-string was suspended at the ceiling. The vasagiha was also scented with the smoke of incense 3. Carudatta, a trader of Campa had constructed a hall similar to that built in the Vidyadhara world. It had a two-fold arrangement: the common people sat on the ground while the distinguished were provided with seats 4. Several houses had underground calls (bhumighara) which were constructed for safety 5 and other purposes. In the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa while describing the happy state of life in the Namdana forest, Vasudeva enumerates various types of houses and parts therein. There were houses of one, two, three and four salas and of round, triangular, rectangular and namdiyavatta shapes. Each of these houses had many chambers to serve different purposes: a sleeping 1. Ibid., 363. 3. Ibid., 363. 5. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 41, 296. 2. Ibid., 102. 4. Ibid., 127-28. 6. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, 1.39b%; The Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, in the description of the city of Dvaraka, says that there were circular and multistoreyed palaces (cakka-bahubhoma pasaya); Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, *.77.

450 chamber (gabbhaghara), a chamber with jala type of windows (jalaghara), dressing room (pasadhanaghara), equipped with mirror and wax of honey-comb (sadappanamjana-sitthayasala), sagavakkha garulabhekkhaga (?) pecchaghara, a room consisting of two sleeping chambers jamalagabbhagiha) and dhavalagiha Temples : The house of gods (devabhavana) was essentially different from that of a human beings (manusagiha)1, though many times palatial buildings have been compared with a vimana i.e. a temple. 2 There was no hard and fast rule as regards the location of a temple. It would be situated on the main road (rayapaha) ³, on the bank of a river 4, or even outside the city 5 or in a garden' 06. Places of worship erected for the popular deities like the Jakkhas were very simple. Sumana Jakkha's temple was situated in the Manoramujjana near the saliggama. Residents of the village worshipped a stone-slab, named sumana after the god, and placed under 1. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 143. 3. Ibid., 65. 5. Ibid., 196. 2. Ibid., 209: 4. Ibid., 21, 80-81. 6. Ibid., 85, 337.

451 an Asoga tree! Another incident is that of an anonymous deity consecrated by a Brahmin farmer. For the installation of the deity, the Brahmin had constructed a simple platform (vitaddi) under a Sami tree². That many of the temples were possibly very humble constructions can be summarised from the information of the use in their construction of sugarcane which was practically without any juice. The insipid variety of sugarcane was pounded in mud and used as cementing material in the construction of houses and temples (devakula-gharainam