32. The Art of cooking (in ancient India)

From the example of Namda and Sunamda, both of whom were cooks of Vasudeva, it can be known that cooking was regarded as a specialised profession, wherein special training in cooking combined with the knowledge of medicine (tigiccha) was needed. It was held that the art of cooking was dependent on the science of medicine (Ligicchayattam) suyam} } . The meals prepared by the two cooks of Vasudeva are described as of good colour, taste and smell 1. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II. 134b. Such a practice is still observed in Maharashtra, especially in the case of children. 2. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 211.

286 vanna-rasa-gamdha-sampannam) less in bulk (niyam) and h conducive to health (hiyam, pattam). The Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa refers to the food of cakkavatti (cakkavatti-sarisa-bhoyanam), which was supposed to be the ideal one 2, and also to the treatise of on cooking written by king Nala. The dishes and the way of cooking described in this treatise seem to have been very popular³. Method of Taking Food : Generally food was taken after bath as can be seen both from the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa 4 and the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa 5. We get detailed information about the arrangement of seats and method of taking food in one of the descriptions of the picnic, given in the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa 6. By the order of the prince a pandal for taking meals (bhoyanamamdava) was erected. On its floor were 1. Ibid.: 2. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, I. 5a. 8b. 3. It is said that Nala knew Suriyavijja with which he cooked in a manner distinct from others. Nalagamthiyau suvakarasattha sapidau loye payaramti, Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II. 67b. 4. 'majiya-jimiya-pasahio' is the usual phrase; Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa,46, 218. 5. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa,II. 134b. For similar observation made by Arab writers; See HCIP. Vol. IV. p. 388. 6. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 64.

287 strewn flowers from a pot (kumbhagga so?), and proper seats were arranged with due consideration to the rank (jahari ham). Members of the gotthi (gotthiya) arrived h t rv at the pandal properly dressed (gahita gamda vathamalla bharana). After washing of hands, (pakae hatthasoet, eatables (nanaviham khajja-bhojja-pejjam) were sewed. 1 There is another description in the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa of the items served and the way of taking food. Vasudeva while receiving the liberal hospitality of a caravan trader (sattavaha) was first bathed and then asked to wear a pair h t of costly garments (mahariha vathajuyala). In the meals he was served food of three varieties, viz.; that which is to be eaten (bhakkha), that to be licked (lejiha), thanakas(?), and drinks. in As can be seen from some of the incidents of the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, the mode of eating and the items of eating es differe in the cases of higher and lower class and the cities and villages. The Standard and Sub-standard meals : The standard meals consisted of four types of 2 food items, viz., asana, pana, khaima and saima For the 1. Vasudevahindi(F), 218-19. 2. Ibid.; 176, Corresponding to the bhojja, pejja, khajja and lejjha in the part two of Vasudevahindi; Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II. 49a.

288 poor, it consisted only of boiled rice and pulses, where vihit, nip hava); habe in the villages major portion of the items in food was covered by milk products (gorasabahula) The Mode of eating : When asked to demonstrate the right method of to putting morsels in the mouth, doorkeeper Gamgarakkhiya shaped boiled rice into a ball and left it in the mouth "as were of though it was a hole. The Princess Piyamgusamdari laughed at his way of eating rubbed After the meals were over, the hands were washed with flour of pulses (kalayacunna), and then were served the fragrant fruits 4. The Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa also refers to the four varieties of the eatables, viz.; khajja (to be eaten), pejja (to be drunk or sipped), bhojja (to be eaten by swallowing) and lejjha 5 (to be eaten by licking), which were expected to be full of flavours 6 1. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 144. 3. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 290. 5. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II.49a. 2. Ibid.; 145. 4. Ibid.; 218-19. 6. Ibid.; I. 39ab. 2

289 Specific types of Food The food fit for married persons was cooked •• in a different way and was denoted as kamika or mihiniu ahara¹., Maids, and women in separation were not expected to take such a food ². The food recommended for the latter was boiled rice not mixed with anything else (ayambila)? Non-Vegetarian Food : A point should be made clear in connection with the recognition of non-veterian diet. n-veter In the case ge of Brahmanical rituals such as a feast to the manes (bhattapanam piuno,i.e. the sraddha ceremony), it was laid down in the codes that the persons should partake of the flesh of animals 4. And apart from this, it was quite usual for certain sections of the society, say for 6 instance, the gova 5, gahavati and the vaniya 7, to consume g fish so also animal flesh as a regular item of food. 3. Ibid.; I. 266. 5. Ibid.; 274. 1. Ibid.; I. 26b; II. 194b. 2. Ibid., 4. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 14. 6. Ibid.; 274-75. 7. Ibid.; 294. 8. Ibid.; 74-75. 9. Ibid.; 74. 278.

290 For such persons who were accustomed to nonvegetarian diet, certain birds and animals were tabooed as for instance, dog, donkey and crowl. Jain--Followers : Vegetarians : However, the followers of Jainism never entertained any non-vegetarian food 2. The main reason to refuse any sort of non-vegetarian dish was practising non-violence completely. It implied practising nonviolence not only on a personal level but also not being indirectly responsible for such an act. As such, a person was not only not allowed to kill an animal himself in his house but also not to purchase the flesh of an animal at the butcher's house or accept flesh purchased for him by others. Violence was not only believed to be against the principle of philanthrophy but was supposed to be conducive to sinful activity, as it was obstructive to prayer (patthana) and ultimately forced the soul to go astray from the path of right knowledge³. In the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, also Vasudeva is not ready to show respect to the sages of the Tavasa fold inspite of their practice of celibacy and mortification of the 1. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 260. 3. Ibid.; 258-59. 2. Ibid., 142, 258-59.

291. body, as they practised violence by accepting roots, fruits, and flowers of plants as their food¹, which were supposed to have life². Items of Vegetarian Food : Names of a variety of eatables are to be met with in the course of the narrative of the Vasudevahindi In the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa these occur in the description of the feast given to h 3 Vasudeva, by a caravan trader (sattavaha) of Ilavaddhana³ and in the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa in the description of a similar feast thrown by a Vidyadhara king A list of items of food and drinks displayed on the desire-fulfilling trees (kappapadava) of the Namdana forest, also occurs in the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa5. The Khajjas or Bhakkhas : house 6 • The bhakkhas served to Vasudeva in the trader's were sihakesara, kuvalaya phalaphalamodaka, pappadultava [pappadaga of the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa?], Modakas of beans 7 (kummasamoyaga), ukkariha and sirivatti. 1. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II. 80b. 2. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 267. 4. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II. 49a. 6. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 219. 3. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 219. 5. Ibid., I. 39ab. 7. Skt. Utkariha, a sort of sweetmeat made of milk, treacle and ghee; MWD.

292 1 2 Along with the Modaka sweets, khamdamodakas [modakas stuffed with candied sugar (khamda)), have also been referred to as the dishes very much liked by children ³.. Another sweetmeat, ghayapura 4+ (ghrtapura) 5 which was prepared in clarified butter (ghaya) has also been referred to. The Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa on the other hand, the refers to the following bhakkhas: saktuli, khamdasakkuli,modayas stuffed with filaments or stalks of lotuses (?), da tisaraya, khamdasakkara, pappaddaga, tilapappada, kampillagasoyavattiya, ittaga, varapattisa, miyapuraga and aghoria. The bhakkas tasted sweet, or salty or otherwise? Of the above, sakkuli and tisaraya were sweet as they were stuffed with sugar, jaggery and pulses (vadaga) 8. The pappadaddagas also were prepared of pulses 1. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 101, 225-26. 3. Vasudevahindi(F), 172. 2. Ibid., 18. 4. Ibid., 239. 5. A sweetmeat prepared of flour, milk, cocoanut and ghee, See MWD) and the same as modern ghevera. (See 6. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, I. 39ab. II. 49a. Of these thappada, modaka, sakkulika and kharavattika have been referred to in the Amgavijja, p.182. 7. Amgavijja, p.182. 8. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II. 49a.

293 but tasted salty, as sochal salt (sovaccala) was added to it as one of the ingrediants 1. Bhojjas : Rice, which probably formed the staple food 2, 3 of the people, was used in various preparations. Ayambila which was accepted as pure food ³ ; kura, which was served from the royal kitchen to the servants"; payasa 5 and 6 khirodana which were cooked in milk, all these were preparations of rice. It is also stated that some times ghee was also added to payasa to make it more tasty?, and that khirodana was very sweet 8. Among all the rice preparation that of 9. kalamasali referred to in Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, as kalamodana was said to be very tasty. 1. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II. 49a. 2. Terms used for meals are bhatta or bhattapana Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 95, 21. 3. Ibid.; 62. 5. Ibid., 22. 43. 95, 239. 7. Ibid.; 314. 4. Ibid.; 290, also 44. 6. Ibid., 87, 169. 8. Ibid.; 87- 9. Ibid.; 218.

294 Rice cooked with pulses (nipphava) formed the meal of the poor, person². a According to the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa the bhoyanavihi included boiled rice, preparations of pulses like mugga, masa and sana. To these were added ghee, honey, spices, flowers, butter, fruits and sugar for taste 2. Kalamodana was supposed to be the best variety of rice. When cooked with milk, rice was called paramanna and was considered to be a delicacy³. The Lejihas: The lejihas prepared in the house of the trader are said to be smelling sweet due to mustard + (rayasadauppa). 4 Sum of rice (mamda), gruel of the flour of 6 masura pulse (camasijjada 5) and palala of sesamums and rice are the lejjhas referred to in the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa • 1. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 1440 3. Ibid.; II. 49a. 2. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, I. 39ab. 4. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 219. 5. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II. 49a. Camasi has been explained so by the comm. on Amara II.5.10. (p.346). 6. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II. 19a. included among the lejjhas, Amgavijja, p. 182.

295 Peijas: The beverages referred to in the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, are 2 sugarcane juice 1, milk and cards ², and the javagu. 4 5 The terms madhu and pana are both applied to wine in the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa The beverages referred to be available on the kappapadavas are milk, honey, curds, madhu, majja, veraga sudhu, pasanna, and madira. Wine : From the above list it can be made out that drinking was quite a common practice at least in the higher classes of the society. Vasudeva, though in the guise of a Brahmin, did not hesitate to drink liquor, so also Rayanapadi, a princess 7. Mayurasena, daughter of a setthi 1. It was given as the first alms to Usabha by his grandson. The gods rejoiced at this moment; Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 165. 2. Ibid., 43. 3. Bio javagum, Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 146. Yavagu has been explained as a weak decoction prepared in a particular way from grains; see MWD. 4. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 33. 5. Ibid.;142. Madhu also means honey, Vasudevahindi(F),8 6. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II. 39ab. 7. Ibid., II. 154a. Maidens generally were not expected to taste wine. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa,II.194a.

296 tasted liquor hesitatingly in the company of her husband 1. The practice of spicing liquors with the essences of fruits and flowers has been referred to. The asavas served in the Vidyadhara feast, so also in the palace of princess Rayanapadi savoured lavali (Averrhoa Acida), blue lotus (kuvalaya), clove (lavamga), bakula flower, and trumpet flower (padala) 2. The nectarlike mahamadhu which Vasudeva tasted was scented with the essences of the fruits like mango, citron and orange (naramga)³. Muhavasayas: the After meals were over, the mouth was purified with fruits (sugamdhaphala-kaya-visada-vayano)4. Reference to tablets rendering the mouth smell like a lotus (kuvalaya¯sugamdha) 5 a) 5 and to the chewing of betel leaves to be found in the Vasudevahindi(F). is 1. Ibid.; 3. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II. 235a. 5. Ibid.; 218. 2. Ibid.; II. 49a, 194b. 4. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 219. 6. Ibid., 51.

297 The practice of eating muhavasayas¹ and the chewing of betel leaves, coated with time of shells kha (samcunna) and stuffed with pieces of arecanut, spices 2 and scents' is also referred to.