Vasudevahindi (cultural history)
by A. P. Jamkhedkar | 1965 | 134,331 words
This essay is an English study of the Vasudevahindi reflecting cultural history and traditions of the life of people in ancient and medieval India during the 6th century. The Vasudevahindi is a romantic and religious tale divided into two parts. The first part is attributed to Sanghadasa (6th century A.D.) and explores the wanderings of Dhammilla a...
25. Education in ancient India (Introduction)
The Age of Initiation to Study : The general practice was to send the student to the house of the tutor (ayariyagiha,
lehasala) and the ideal age for intiation seems to have 2 h been eight. However, this age limit never barred those advanced in age from the opportunity of learning3. The student was initiated to the studies on an auspicious day and time, after giving proper consideration to the good and bad omens. nens 4. In the case of musical studies, the lessens started with the worship of Tumburu and Naraya 5. According to the information from the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa also, it can be gathered that the students lived in a hostel (cattavinayasala) 6. The only exception to the above practice seems to be that of the princesses. Princess Muttavali of Vacchagumma was instructed by her teacher in music and dance, at her palace. The tradition of starting 1. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 36-38,118. The teacher has been referred to as kalayariya,Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 74, 118. Reference to teachers in spiritual matters (dhammayariya), in kalas and in sippas are to found in the canonical literature. It should also be noted that sippas are included in the seventy-two kalas; see Jain, op.cit, pp.169, 172. 2. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 74, 114. 4. Ibid.; 36. 6. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II. 113a. 3. Ibid., 127, 193-94, 203. 5. Ibid.; 127- 7. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II. 209a.
241 lessons on an auspicious day and time seems to have continued1, even in the period of the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa The Curriculum : As the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa shows, students were trained or taught in various branches of learning 2 • The kalas, were which are also referred to as agamas3 or vijias+, seventy two in number 5. At their head was the art of writing (lehadiya), formost amongst them was arithmetics (ganiyappahana) and at the end of the list came the science of omens (saunarutapajjavasana). According to the Jaina tradition as represented in the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, Usabha was the first to spread the knowledge of crafts (sippa), which are basically five, and other various arts like that of writing (livi), arithmetic (ganiya) Sculpture (ruva), painting (cittakamma), art of interpreting the auspicious and inauspicious bodily signs of men and women (lakkhanam itthipurisainam), judging the value of precious stones, pearls, etc 7. 1. Ibid. 2. Religious treatises Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 152, 182; Kalas; Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa,127; and crafts,; Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 145-47, 62. 3. Ibid., 122. 6. ibid., 27. 4. Ibid., 122, 203. 5. Ibid., 141. 7. Vasudevahindi(F), 163.
242 The range of subjects studied by different students covered the Veda1, grammar or etymology (sadda) 2 the science of metres (chamda), 3 music (gamdhavva) 4, dance (natta) 5, painting (alekkha), military lore (samgamikao vijjao)7 and a course in charioteership (Isatthasattharahncariyasikkha)8. and Men women of higher classes seem to have been L conversant with writing. A trader wrote letters to his 9 and ren relatives princesses sent love letters to their lovers 10 Sometimes written orders were given to royal servants by the princesses under special circumstances 11. Many times the officers of the king moved in the capital 1. 152, 182. Ibid., 152, it 2. Ibid.; 203. Samanasavanniya, studied by Dhammilla; Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 23, According to Sandesara (trans. p.34), means the section on savarna in the Paninian grammar. 3. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 203. 4. Ibid., 127. 5. Ibid.; 121. 6. Ibid.; 141. 7. Ibid.; 121; dhanuvveya and ahuavijja have been also referred to; Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 201-202. 8. Ibid.: 37. 10.Ibid.; 80.. 9. Ibid., 52. 11. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 171.
243 with note books (pattalivasana) in their hands to make entries of certain on the spot observations. 1. Public declarations were probably inscribed (lekkha) 2 on the stoneCopperplates (tambapatta) -° potthaya) inscribed at the order of the kings, and preserved in copper jar (tambabhayana) 3 have also been referred to. some The students practised their homework on sort of handy boards (phalaga) + or on state (cauramsiya) with chalk pieces (sediya) 5. The number of kalas studied is at some places 7 given to be sixty-four while at some other places it is seventy two in the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa These seventy-two arts referred to are the same traditional arts referred to in the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, while the sixty four arts mastered by princesses Muttavati and Mayurasena were the same as referred to in the kamasutra 8 and expected to be mastered by respectable men and women. 1. Ibid., 102; Sandesara, trans., p. 126. 2. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 154. 3. Ibid., 189. 6. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II. 175a, 208b. 78. Ibid.; I. 8a. 6.4. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 28 7. Ibid. 8. Chakladar, Social Life in Ancient India, p. 130.
244 One can get a fairly good idea about the subjects, highly esteemed by intellectual circles and worthy of study as discussed by Vasudeva with his brothersin-law. The subjects under discussion were varied and included arithmetic (ganiu), grammar (vagarana), prosody (chamda), astronomy (jotisa), mimamsa, samkha (Sankhya), loyayatiyavada (laukayatikavada), satthitamta (sastitantra), veda, purana, itihasa, uppakkhadivvabhummamtalikkha (astrology?), music (gamdhavva), poetry (kavva), drama (nadaga) and stories based on historical incidents (akkhaiga) 1. In the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, reference is also made to ink (mella)), which was dark blue in colour like a lotus 2 also to letter-writting. and Vegvati, a princess, wrote a letter that is to her husband, which was written in a way, still in vogue. L 1. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, I.lla. The list enumerating the popular subjects of study as given in the Anuyoga dvara sutra is similar to the above list. Anuyogadvarani, Sutra 49.f. 2. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, I. 4a.
245 The letter opened with words "requests so and so with head bowed down to the ground------ I communicate the well being-----" etc. The letters were seated with 2 inscribed rings and despatched with messengers 3. Specialised Instructions: The variety of subjects could not be taught in one school, hence there was a specialisation, In some schools only the Vedas 4 were taught; while in others only carpentary 6 or archery or music was taught. There was also a sort of differenciation among the schools because of the sectarian bias which was associated with the teachers 8. The Student and the teacher : As has been observed earlier, all the students lived with the teacher3, and got shelter, food and clothes 1. " dihaumamtam ajjauttam Vasudeva-devam avanitalagatena sirasa vinnaveti sarirakusala vattae pesanujjaue piyasukusalam, Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, 1.2. 2. Ibid.; 1.3%; II. 169b. ni mi 3. 6. 9. Along with the messenger some oral message also was despatched; Vasudevahindi(1) 1.3. 4. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 182. 5. Ibid.; 62. Ibid.; 201-202. 7. Ibid., 126. 8. Ibid., 50. Ref. to a Prince living with his teacher, Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 189-91; so also the scions of the royal family living with Punnasa who was a teacher in archery, Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 202. 5* Ibid
246 from the wife of the teacher especially so when they were in her good books1. Sher, probably against the wish of her husband, paid no attention to the intellectual capabilities of students, but only to their capacity of paying money to her2. The teacher generally got some fees 3 at the end of the course 4, which, of course, was 5 according to the wish of the teacher The profession of teaching was not, it seems, prospective from the point of view of economic stability, as can be seen from the example of Vasubhui who had to support himself not only with farming but with priestly income also 06. That the profession of the teacher was respected can be seen from the story of a school-boy in the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa The story illustrates, how a student had full faith in his teacher and hence obeyed him, and how in turn the teacher 1. Ibid., 126-27. 2. Ibid., 182. 3. Vasudeva, however, gave it at the beginning only; Vasudevahindi (F),182. 4. Ibid.; 190. 5. Prince Vasu had to suffer on this account. Vasu was asked by his preceptor to look after the welfare of his family after his (preceptor's) death. Vasu spoke a lie and had to go to the mether world; Vasudevahindi(F), 6. Ibid., 30. 100.
247 paid attention to the well-being of his ward 1. That due respect was given to, and proper mode of respectful address was observed in the case of teachers even in the palace, can be seen from the example of princess Muttavali and Vasudeva2. The Method of teaching : Some details are to be found in the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa as to how a student was taught in a particular subject stage by stage. In Vedic instructions the student was first of 3 all to read and write (akkharasamjoga) 3 and then to learn by heart word by word", the vedas along with the amgas 5. In the case of a charioteer who had to study archery, the course consisted of streching the arrow (kaddhiya silaga). Practically the five types of positions of fingers (pamcaviha mutthibamdho) employed while shooting, winning Pumnaga(?), proper grip over the position of fingers (mutthibamdha), quickness in aiming at the target 1. VhiM), II. 112b. 3. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 152. 5. Ibid., 152. 2. Ibid., II. 212a. 4. Ibid., 182.
248 (jayalakkha sigghaya), Firmness in shooting (dadhappaharitta), using two types of weapons (isatthe, padiyage, jamtamukke, ya), and other items of skill enumerated in the science about cutting trees etc.-.Female Education : In the selection on curriculum it was observed womenfrom that literacy prevailed even amongst womenfrom the higher The classes. The maidens from royal families and families beds of rich merchants (rayasitthiibhasuyao). Seem to have been proficient also in music, dance arranging flowers into wreaths and garlands (mallasamjoyana), arranging (sejjarayana), composing music (gamdhavvarayana), cut-work in leaves (pattacchejja), reading historical stories (akkhaiyapotthayavayana), relating stories 2 and the art of performing water (udagaparikamma)3. Probably the students from the rich class were taught at home all these arts by experts, as in the case of princess Muttavali, referred to in the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa Shows. Liberary activity : Under this heading only that literature would be dealt with which has not been referred to in the section on the curriculum. 1. Ibid. 36. 2. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 68. 3. Ibid.; also Sandesara trans., p.82.
Jaina Literature : 249 A treatise by name Savayapannatti was written with a view to show the path of liberation to the lay followers. It was also called Ariya-Veda, and was so big as to contain a hundred thousand (sayasahassa) stanzas. This treatise written at the time of emperor Bharaha is stated to have remained in a very fragmentary form 1. The literature referred to in the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa is the eleven amgas and the fourteen puvvas which formed a part of the curricula of the Jaina monks 2. Padhamanuoga, of which the Vasudevahindi forms a part according to the Jaina tradition described the life stories of the saviours (Litthagara) sovereigns (Cakkavatti) and famous personalities from the dynasty of the Dasaras Nirutta is said to help the proper interpretation of the Vedas, obviously Ariyavedas. 1. The term Ariyaveda to the treatise was given to ይዞ differtiate if from Anariya Vedas like the Ahavvaveda; Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 184-85. 2. Ibid., 85, 174. 3. Ibid., 1-2. 4. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 184.
250 Anariya Vedas : Ahavvaveda which was the'Anariya Veda' created according to the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa by god Mahakala to delude the people 1. Later on, it was revived by Pippalada with ulterior motives2. The contents of the Ahavvaveda are said to describe, mainly the following sacrifices: rayasuya (rajasuya), asameha (asvamedha), piumeha (pitrmedha) and maumeha (matrmedha)3. ** A probable reference. to the four Vedas' 4 caugaya) and a separate mention of Vedas along with 5 amgas (veya sahamgehim) has been made in the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa The Bhagavadgita has been referred to in connection with a lay follower of the Bhagavata religion, who, it is said, knew both the text (sutta) and its meaning 6 The Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa also refers to Brahmanical literature such as Purana, Itihasa, nadaga akkhaiga, all of which? 1. Ibid., 185-189. 3. Ibid.; 152-53, 192. 5. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 152. 7. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II.177b. 2. Ibid., 151-53. 4. Ibid.; 192. 5. Ibid.; 50.
251 were very popular and were related on religious occasions or otherwise. The stories from the Puranas were known as loiyakahas (pupular tales) and were quoted as illustrations on various occasions. Sastras : The Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa refers to the lakkhanasattha 2 which described the auspicous and inauspicious bodily forms of men and women. The Atthasattha which has been quoted by the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa 3 was possibly in Prakrit only, according to Sandesara+. 6 gamas 5 and the samayas, i.e. treatises The agamas on dance, painting and music have been referred to. The scientific literature (satthas) referred to in the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa includes atthamga mahanimitta (science 7 1. Ibid.; II. 10a. 3. Ibid., 45. 5. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 121, 352. 7. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II. 50a. 2. Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa, 313. 4. Sandesara, trans.p.55. 6. Ibid., 121, 174.
252 of good and bad omens), Vesiyasavvattha- (science 2 of prostitutes), Samudda carana or Durisitthilakkhana (palmistry and auspicious and inaspicious bodily signs of human beings), Sudasatta3 (coockery) and Cilaiyasattha+ (science of dancing). h Though the above mentioned sciences have been referred to in the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, Sappatigicchasutta 5, 6 7 Dehappamdanasutta and Saunaruta are the only ones which have been quoted in the text. .8 The Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa also refers to the kathas and akhyayikas kappiya katha (romantic) and caritakatta (story based on historical incidents) 9, but does not give any example of these. The Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, however, refers to the Natya Sastra (madasutta) 10 of Bharata, which was quite popular and had 1. Ibid., II. 177b. 3. Ibid., I. 61 5. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, II. 205a. 7. Ibid., II. 159b. 9. Ibid., 208-09. 2. Ibid., II. 193a. 4. Ibid. II. 177 ab. 6. Ibid.%; II. 170b. 8. Vasudevahindi(F), 68. 10. Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa II. 56a.
253 influenced the mode of life of the elite 1.