Chapter 6 - Epilogue

Chapter VI EPILOGUE In the foregoing pages an attempt was made to systematically present the picture of life in ancient India with the help of the data in the two parts of Vasudevahimdi. The two parts were written in different periods: the first part in the 6th Century A.D., and the other at least two or three centuries later. The reason in selecting these two texts, separated by a gulf of time, was two_fold. Firstly, from the point of view of theme these two are basically homogeneous as these together completely describe the 'Wanderings of Vasudeva'. Secondly, such a study offered an opportunity to study the life of the people over a considerable period of time, and the changes in it, if any. The Nature of the Vasudevahindi : In spite of the basic unity of the theme of the Vasudevahindi referred to above there are some points of divergence in the two parts. Both these pieces of literature were written with a view of religious sermonization, and they thus qualified themselves for the appellation of dharmakatha. A close study of the two texts reveals that the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa is more qualified for the appellation. The main theme, as explained above, is the account of the exploits of Vasudeva which resulted in his marriages with different maidens. But the undercurrent of these exploits is religious exhortation and it is felt deeply in the sermons

by various Tirthakaras and monks, discussions on philosophy, and stories emphasising the superiority of Jaina doctrines. 609 From the point of view of contents also the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa is unique in_asmuch as it presents the Jaina versions of the legends of Trivikrama, Sibi and Rama. The Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa also deserves to be described as the precursor of the later Jaina Puranas as it incorporates within its narratives the legends about the origin of the three great royal lines, viz. the Ikkhaga, the Hari and that of the Vidyadharas. In its prelude the work of Sanghadasa offers the exploits of Krsna and his sons Pradyumna and Samba. Against this background the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa appears completely different. It does incorporate in the body of its text two very long narratives, which can be described as pieces of good ascetic poetry. These are story of prince Kanagaradha and the story of Nala and Damayanti. And still, it can very well be said to be different from the VhIP) in view of the vast secular data it presents in the form of extracts on polity, behaviour of a successful courtesan, dance and music, painting and auspicious and inauspicious signs on the bodies of men and women. With a view, therefore, to compare the varied data in these two texts and to bring out the contrast

610 between the two, if any, it was throught the whole data together. it was throught proper to present This has brought out the difference, at respective places in the differing data on every item included in this study. Political Theory and Administration : The Jaina mythology states that political administration was a necessity because of the evil spread in the world. Though in the initial stages of this institution the king was supposed to be elected, the kingship became hereditary. All the powers were completely invested in the king but he was also bound by the ancestral customs and traditions. The king was helped in carrying out the responsibilities of the kingdom by members of the royal family apparent and the ministers. - e.g. the queen and the heir The foreteller and the purohita also played important roles as the counsellors of the king. The ministers including the sresthi had administrative and sometimes even judicial powers vested in him. The Bresthin helped by negamas, looked into the disputes of the merchants and caravan traders. In charge of the city administration was the nayara rakkhaga, who was supposed to be next only to the ministers. The village, which was the smallest unit of

611 administration, was looked after by a bhoiga or a gamauda. The Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, in addition, gives rayatacchaniya, bhogapadiga, gadamga and gamauda as the hierarchy of the administrative officials. The extract summarising the views of Kautilya on foreign and home policy of the king as incorporated in the Vasudevahindi(I) can be said to be a major contribution of that text on political thought. Social System : Though religious philosophies like those of Jainism and Buddhism advocated equality and castelessness. the contemporary society in the period of both the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa and the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa seems to have given sanction to the observance of a particular type of hierarchy on the basis of caste. In the Vasudevahindi(F), Vasudeva refers to the anuloma system of marriage as accepted by the society. He further points out marriage relations between families of the same social and economic status. This state of things does not seem to have changed in the later time, i.e. in the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa the marriage. Another interesting feature was the ritual of From the various descriptions of the rituals of marriages in the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa and also the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa it becomes clear that the ritual exactly follows that laid

612 down in the Grhyasutras. The family was patriarchial, naturally women had a subordinate position in the house. They were expected to be obedient to the elders and not take any decision whatsoever of their own. The women from the upper strata of the society, however, enjoyed considerable freedom, inasmuch as they had an opportunity to acquaint themselves with various domestic and fine arts, were literate and could participate in festive gatherings along with the male members of the family. The courtesans enjoyed a good status in the society and their company caused no damage to the prestige of a gentleman. Marrying a daughter of a courtesan was not unusual. However, the orthodox opinion branded the association with a courtesan as an addiction. The position does not seem to have changed in the later times except that in the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa the doctrice of being 'devoted to one's husband (padibhatta)' has been extolled through the story of Nala and Damayanti. Gentlemen from the upper class studied the arts like dance and music, completely in the spirit of an amateur; though accepting the profession of an actor, dancer or a musician was considered low. As can be seen from the existence of various clubs, many gentlemen

613 entertained themselves, by becoming members of clubs (gostthi) which brought together persons of similar tastes. The king in turn seems to have patronised them by appointing them as judges on the occasions of dance recitals arranged for him. Several recreations in which persons indulged themselves at house and outside have been referred to in the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa and the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa Gosthi was a popular institution in those times. Members, during their gatherings, carried on discussion on literary and other topics, arranged witty competitions or passed time by arranging picnics. Recreations in the house were fondling of pet birds and persuit of fine arts. Economic Conditions: One of the remarkable institutions of the contemporary times was the system of guilds. There is not much information about the actual working of a seni but from the story of Suvannakara Jinapalita in the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa one can make out that the Seni accepted business assignments which were entrusted to dividual members. In the in ren Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa, there is a reference to various senis like those of washermen, florists and wine merchants who served the palace. Sometimes traders who wanted to carry on

614 trade in various parts of India or with foreign countries. traversed distant lands under the leadership of a senior trader. These traders risked their lives in journeys through dangerous jungles which were infested with robbers and wild animals and undertook long voyages in the sea. The reward, in the form of fabulous wealth, which they fetched, was worth the risk. The Sarthavahas, as the traders were referred to, continued such activity even in later times, but probably with less vigour. From the extract on the evaluation of jewels it seems that trade in jewels and other allied precious objects flourished to a great extent. But how far the Indian Sarthavaha took active part in the journeys is not known. From the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa it can be surmised that service at the royal court, trade in a caravan and profession of a courtesan brought extraordinary wealth to a person, whereas a menial labours and teachers were financially in disadvantageous positions. The Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa states that the professions of artisans such as musician could earn wealth with less trouble. Religion and Philosophy : the The evidence offered by Vasudevahimdi is very significant from the point of view of the Jaina religion. The significant position Vasudevahimdi holds is evident

675 from the period when composition of the first part took place. the h While reviewing the position of Jaina religion we have to consider two complimentary sections of the Lay followers : the monastic Order and the long followers. The monastic order was headed by a senior monk of the grade of an ayariya or a ganin. The group of muns probably accompanied the prior during the wanderings. Persons from all sections of society were welcomed into the Order. During the period under review the monastic order seems. to have undergone some periods of difficulty. along with their children entered the Order. Persons Sometimes member of the Order used unjustifiable means to increase the number of the followers of the Order. The myth of Vinhukumara illustrates in certain respects this point. Sometimes, it seems, the Jaina monk faced hostile behaviour from kings of other faiths. In spite of the difficulties, the Jaina monks continued to preach their faith, moving from village to village. During such tours their resorts were temples of popular gods, and they preached successfully by convincing the people of their skill in discussion and by the use of supernatural powers. The religion of the lay followers mainly

616 consisted of the worship of Arhat images and the monks. The evidence from the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa shows that there was a perceptible change in the outlook of Jaina religion at least as regards the religious life of a lay followers. The study of the Jaina canonical literature shows that the lay religious life was never an ultimate ideal. In a broader sense the ideal of a Jaina monk and Jaina lay follower was the same, i.e. liberation. Because of • The certain inabilities a person remained a lay follower. ultimate goal of a lay follower was to be a monk and to attain liberation. This ideal was probably too abstract for the Jaina lay followers in the time of Vasudevahindi(F) In the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa the author, probably for the first time, proclaims the four ends of life, viz. dhamma, attha, kama and mokkha. The monks of the period preached that austerities of a monk could be efficacious in fulfilling worldly desires. The austerities which were initially meant for the purification of mind and the body became vo✓itive in nature. Two other significant aspects of the Jaina religion in the later period are as follows. Temple worship had already replaced Stupa worship by the time of the Vasudevahindi by Sanghadasa In the Vasudevahindi(), we observe, however, an elaborate templeficon worship on the lines of Hinduism. In this reformed type of worship also the Jaina religion emphasised some aspects of Jainism as the padikkamana.

617 In the Vasudevahindi(F) the story of the descent of the Gamga shows how sanction to the ancient custom of nagabali which is also laid down in the Grhyasutras, was given by the Jaina thinkers. The Jainas also shared with the followers of other faiths, the beliefs such as auspicious and inauspicious bodily forms, dreams and omens. The extract on jewels shows that the Jaina society granted a sanction to the popular faith of averting evils by wearing different types of precious stones. Followers of other faiths have been referred to as laukikas or sometimes specifically with sect names such as Bhagavadas. The religious behaviour of the followers, as can be imagined from the stories, must have been of varied nature. Sacrifices, worship of popular gods like Bhutas, the krsna cult, performance of sraddhas are some of the various aspects. The ascetics and the mendicants of various schools have been often referred to. It seems cheats also wore the garb of an ascetic to carry out their evil ends. Many parivarajakas took interest in worldly affairs, while some others indulged in immoral activities and as such, did not enjoy much respect from the people. The above resume shows that the life depicted in the first part of the Vasudevahindi, is very much similar to that

618 in the late Gupta period. The form of government, prosperous trade in and out of India, graded society with fourfold divisions, dress and ornaments, recreations and pastimes, all these factors support the above observation. The second part of the Vasudevahindi, which is at least two or three centuries later, if not more, than the first part, reveals more or less a continuation of the same pattern of life with some points of difference. In the field of religion, the sectarian attitude comes into a clearer relief, image worship as practised in the temples becomes elaborate, and the various beliefs and superstitions are given sanction through romantic tales like the Vasudevahindi by Dharmadasa. In the social sphere, the caste system seems to have gained firm ground and the role of woman as 'one devoted to her husband' is prominently emphasised.