Development of Stupa Architecture in India

The study in evolution of Indian Architecture especially of Buddhist Architecture has attracted the fascination of scholars from throughout the world. The earliest man made structural dwelling in the country are residential structure meant for habitation, secular and are reported from the early phase of proto-historic period. The religious buildings came in to existence with the growth of religious pantheons. In the history of Indian civilization Buddhism, which besides being one of the oldest religions, has been a way of life and a socio-cultural system. A myriad variety of architecture was conceived, patronized and constructed by the Buddhists throughout the length and breadth of the country. Of these, Stupa architecture occupied a very important place. The Stupa architecture in its origin, evolution and structural arrangement remains an exciting architectural phenomenon.

The reasons very aptly quoted by Susila Panth (Panth 1976: xi) in the following words:-

“Probably in no other religion, except Buddhism, a particular Structure has been recommended by its founder either for the worship or for commemoration or as a means of salvation. It is the Stupa that has been commended by the Tathagata himself. It is, therefore, not only religious but it symbolizes the presence of the lord, though without any icon. Bit it creates the same sense of reverence and fear in the minds of the people and similar reaction as found in the Brahmanical practices of idol worship, but, at the same time, it avoids all the formal ritualistic performances of the latter. It epitomises the essence of Buddhism and suggests the path to Nirvana. It satisfies the psychological urge to worship, and, simultaneously stands for a crusade against ritualistic and cult-image worship. It is in this respect that it is a ‘magic instrument.”

The word Stupa is mentioned in the Rigveda, Atharvaveda, Vajasaneyi Samhita, Taittriya Samhita, in the Panchavimsata Brahmana and the Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary which says it a “knot or tuft of hair, the upper part of head, crest, top, summit, a heap or pile of earth or bricks etc.”

Rigveda refers to a Stupa raised by the King Varuna above the forest in a place having no foundation (Rigveda; verse 28). The word ‘estuka’ is also used in the same sense in Rigveda, probably by then anything raised on the ground like a heap/pile might have been known as Stupa. However the Pali word ‘thupa’ is quite similar to the term ‘Stupa’. Thupa means a conical heap, a pile or a mound or a conical or bell shaped shrine containing a relic (Panth 1976:3).

The word tope for Stupa was first introduced into English by Elphinstone in his account of the tope of Manikyala in the Rawalpindi District in the year 1839: ‘Tope is an expression used for a mound or barrow (hill or hillock) as far west as Peshawar...’ (Tucci 1988: p-ix); (also see MountStewart Elphinstone, Account of the kingdom of Caubool, 2^nd ed.,1.108, cited from Hobson-Jobson 1903:934-935).

Benisti Mireille very aptly states-

“the Stupa’s profile is extremely varied, depending on the epoch and country, but it is always recognisable, as if it has conserved within itself, through all its transformations, something permanent which characterizes it. Object of worship and veneration, center of attraction of the pious people, solemn or familiar, it carries within itself, a part of history and Buddhist doctrine: it is a sign and a set of signs”.

The Stupa is so linked to the Buddhistic life that they were not content to erect monuments alone: sculptors represented them on stones, and we find them abundantly represented on panels on the Stupa monuments itself, on the railings-balustrades surrounding it, on cave walls, structural, monolithic made out of varied material starting from clay, stone, wood, ivory, metals, terracotta etc. the study material is abundant and spreads over time and space.

The studies of the Mahavastu, Divyavadana and Kriyasamgraha have helped to evolve a chronology of the figurative Stupa in India from the second century BCE to fourth century CE, thus enabling us to step ahead in our knowledge of the indispensable monument of Buddhism.

According to M. Sivarammurti Stupa is regarded as a monument for veneration. But as Stupa seems to be associated with votive and commemorative and offering purposes; moreover Stupa was related to the ritualistic and commemorative with sectarian, affliation with school of philosophical obligatory and was bound by aspects of social-economic life. The Buddhist texts like the Avadana Satakam, Mahavadana and Stupavadanam mentions about the commemorative aspects of the Stupa even the Jaina literature like Raya Pasenaiya Sutta refers to it. Probably in the later period, due to deep desire of the common mass to worship the lord for the sake of salvation, Stupa acquired its votive character as well. Early Stupas were devoid of art maybe since Ashoka’s time Stupa architecture acquired prominence in the socio cultural life of the country and art began to develop around the Stupa structure.

According to A. Cunningham, Maisey and Foucher the remains of the Stupa found at Sanchi can be classified into three categories (Cunningham1847:473)

1. Religious edifies or Stupa dedicated either to the celestial or the Adi-Buddha or to the mortal Buddha.

2. Funeral Stupa erected over the relics of mortal Buddha or over his disciples.

3. Stupa for commemorative Buddha.

Satapatha Brahmana mentions of raising a mound on the burial ground after cremation. The burial mound for the Devata should be square in shape. In the Jaina and Brahmanical texts in some places Stupa is termed as chaitya. In the Vedic, Post Vedic, Epics, Jaina and Buddhist literatures refers to the existence of chaitya-vriksha. These were mostly treated as sacred places but were not necessarily associated with burial.

It is doubtful if any Stupas were erected during the life time of Buddha. Since he had declared that it was inappropriate to erect Stupa to enshrine his bodily remains while he was still alive, however the legend says that the Buddha gave a few strands of his hair (kasha asthi) to the merchants Tapassu and Bhallika, who had offered him the first meal after his enlightenment at Bodhgaya. They were said to have erected a Stupa over the hair relic so as to venerate them. Burmese Buddhist claims that these hair relics are enshrined in the Shwedagon Stupa at Yangon, though it is generally believed that the merchants hailed from ancient Kalinga.

After the demise of Buddha and his cremation at Kushinagar and later the corporeal relics was distributed among eight Mahajanapadas, initially eight Stupas (Saririka Chaityas) were constructed at eight centres namely, Rajagrihya, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethadipa, Pava and Kushinara. Drona the Brahmin who initiated the distribution, himself erected a Stupa to enshrine the urn that was used to divide the relics.

The Moriyas arrived too late for a share of the relic and were given the wood ashes from the cremation pyre, and they too built a Stupa in their city of Pipphalavana. Thus all together ten Stupas were erected i.e. eight on corporeal relics and two on urn and over wood ashes by Drona and the Moriyas respectively.

Jatakas mentions about the existence of Stupa but does not throw any light on the structural details of Stupa. The Sujata Jataka and the Bahiya Sutta describes Stupas as raised earthen mounds to commemorate the deceased. This indicates that most probably prior to Ashoka most of the Stupas were made of clay (Pant 1976:3). Even the original Stupa at Sanchi and Bharhut are said to be made of clay.

Archaeological excavations and findings proved that during Ashoka’s reign use of bricks and stone for constructional purpose became popular. But we cannot deny the fact that the predecessors of Ashoka like Bimbisara and Ajatsatru both had constructed a number of Stupas in honour of the Buddha which contained relics of Buddha (Mahaparinibban Sutta:83).

If Buddhism is a jewel with many facets, then the Stupa must be the natural expressions of this in architectural form. Multifarious in form but common in spirit, it adorns the landscape in places where Buddhism has taken root. Buddhists of all lands see the Stupa as a representation of the Buddha and his enlightenment. The Stupa thus is a monument erected over the relic of a Buddha or an enlightened disciple, or at places consecrated as scenes of his acts. According to the Chinese pilgrims Fa-hsien and Hsuan-tsang seeing Stupas which are said to have enshrined the objects which have been used by Buddha (paribhogika Stupa) i.e. his robe, bowl or walking staff, but archaeologically it is to be proven.

With the emergence of Mahayana sect it was not necessary that all the Stupas contained relics. It was taken over by the image worship, with the transformation from non-iconic to iconic for changes were also found in the architectural patterns. Mahayanist focused on miniature Stupas as donative structures for the sake of getting salvation which lead o multiplicity of Stupas without containing relics.

According to B.M.Barua (1934), Stupa architecture can be compared with different stages of man’s life. He observes “putting of the relics in covered casket indicated stage of conception; putting of casket in a stone box indicates birth; covering of the box by a brick structure as infancy; the rise of the structure above the ground (medhi) as childhood; oval shaped (anda) that of adolescence; the chatravali and in compassing it by a stone railing keeping guard that of youth and coronation; the lion statues guarding the approaches are that of manhood; erection of ornamental archways and completion of sculptural representations that of maturity and victory; the addition of an outer railing and construction of the flights of steps that of decline and old age.

After Ashoka none of the Mauryan ruler showed any interest in propagating Buddhism. Then the Sungas gave a new dimension to the Stupa architecture. They ruled over north, central and western India between one hundred and eighty five BCE to 70 BCE Sunga and Kanva gave ample opportunity to fine art reflected the cultural and traditional life of the larger section of the people in the society i.e. the bas reliefs on the railings of the Stupa at Bharhut. During Sunga and Ekshakus period enlargement and additions were made in the existing Stupas of Sanchi, Bharhut and Amravati.

Sungas were followed by a spate of Yavanas invasions–the Bacterians, Greeks, Saka and Kushana on India. The Sakas took over Saurastra and probably Taxila and Mathura. The Kushanas extended their empire from Kabul to Kashmir in the north-west to the whole of northern India. Kanishka (78 -120 CE) and Huviska (120–140 CE) contributed significantly to the Buddhist architectural movement. During Kanishka’s reign a number of Stupas were constructed at Taxila, rock-cut Stupa architecture was introduced by him. It is recorded that Kanishka erected a Stupa to enshrine a scripture called Vibhasas (commentaries of the Sarvastivada tradition) at the end of the fourth Buddhist council (Weng Yew 1999:32). Gandhara and Mathura art flourished during Kushana period. Both these schools of art introduced iconic representations of the Buddha.

There are also Stupas, which do not hold any reliquary object inside. These are commemorative Stupas, which are erected at places associated with Buddha’s life or that of his renowned disciple.

The architectural movement in the south (Andhra) flourished under Satavahanas (100 BCE–200 CE). Rock cut architecture of Hinayana sect became more prominent. There is very little information regarding the history of the development of Stupa architecture in north. The Gupta period is considered as the golden age of Indian history. Guptas were Vaishnavites but were tolerant towards Buddhism. It is said that the Stupa at Sarnath was built during the Gupta period.

Unfortunately in India all the later structural examples of stupas are n ruins, the upper portions having decayed and disappeared. But a few good specimens belonging to this period still survive in the form of Votive stupas of stone and metal, literature, and specimens in Ceylon and Burma.