Part 4 - Agriculture in the NBPW phase

By the NBPW times there was a remarkable growth in the agricultural sector. From 1500 BCE major crops were known in the Middle Gaṅgā Plains. They continued in the NBPW phase and some important changes were made in this time. Both mustard and sesame were produced for oil. A number of pulses and sugarcane came to be produced from this time. The latter required deep ploughing. New agricultural operations and techniques like paddy transplantation also occurred from the NBPW times. The plasuka variety of rice denotes a transplanted variety of rice. Wet rice cultivation multiplied rice production manifold. New methods and iron technology created a broad surplus margin that can sustain an urban society comprising non-food growers like priests, rulers, soldiers, merchants, artisans and other professionals. The role of iron in the agricultural prosperity can only be dated from the NBPW phase and not before that because of limited availability of iron. There was a parallel growth of a craft industry.

The sites Chirand, khairadih, Maner, Narhan, Sonepur and Taradih together accounted for only twenty iron objects from Neolithic-Chalcolithic period. There was a sudden outburst in the number of iron objects in the NBPW period. There was a likewise increase in the number of copper and bone objects from the Neolithic-Chalcolithic to NBPW times. Bone, ivory, glass items also registered a similar growth. The multiplicity of handicrafts shows various engagements of the people and a visible change in the economy. Another very important feature of this iron usage is the manufacture of coins in the NBPW phase which was completely absent till the Chalcolithic times. The metal currency surely formed the mode of exchange, manufacture of articles and long distance trade. Just the introduction of iron in the economy at a large scale created a chain reaction leading to the creation of a stratification and surplus in the society. The social differentiation can be seen from as early as the Chalcolithic phase though in a milder form but the difference became obvious in the occurrence of different types of wares.

The deluxe wares of NBPW, BSW and Grey Ware were mainly produced for the upper stratum comprising priests, warriors, state officials, monks, rich traders and BRW and other associated wares were used by peasants, artisans and other petty professionals. Along with this stratification coercive state power was expressed through arrowheads and spearheads found from the Iron-NBPW sites. These must have been mainly possessed by the chief and his kinsmen. While such iron weapons surely augmented the power of the chief how far this could be converted for the state power is an issue of debate. But extensive use of iron tools in agriculture and crafts ensured a free flow of tax that could maintain a salaried warrior group and could support the priests. With the establishment of state a pressure could be exerted on the peasants and other professional group to produce more to make a margin for surplus. City in most cases, particularly in the earliest times as the seat of state power could play the compelling role. Therefore from this stage the credit for the growth of cities as administrative nodal points shifts to the state power rather than the iron technology. Physically they manifest themselves to be large settlements with walled enclosures.^[1]