Part 2 - Beginning of Farming Settlements (South Bihar)

South Bihar, one of the earliest centres of human activities sees the rise of urban complexes at least in three places. Rājagṛha was the early Magadhan capital, later the position was held by Pāṭaliputra, another important urban centre was Campā, the capital of the Aṅga mahājanapada. So Campā-Rājagṛha-Pāṭaliputra formed the core urban axis of the region. Of the three Rājagṛha and Campā belonged to the earliest of urban centres that India saw in the early historical times. Campā is situated on the alluvial plain and the iron NBPW deposits are five times the pre-iron ore deposits pointing to a population growth. In Rajgir the NBPW deposits are only 2 m thick but such deposits are generally much thicker in sites located to the south of the Ganga. Location of three important early historical cities as the administrative headquarters of their respective mahājanapadas calls for an analysis of the region as to what it could have offered to these urban centres. But urbanity came much later and that was based on the promising socio-economic base that can be traced from very early days.

Discovery of Neolithic sites of Taradih, Maner, Senuwar provide an index of the early antecedence of the region. Jethian Valley, located in the old Gaya subdivision of the Gaya district only 12.5 km from Rajgir has revealed Palaeolithic antiquities mostly in the form of implements and tools. Paimar, located in the Kiul-Gaya branch of the Eastern Railway at 8 km from Gaya Railway Station is another Upper Palaeolithic site.^[1] Neolithic layers are particularly prominent in the Kaimur, Rohtas districts in South Bihar. Here a number of early agricultural Neolithic-Chalcolithic sites may be located with the central site of Senuwar. The site is located only at 7 km south of Sasaram and on the north bank of Kudra river.^[2]

Senuwar represents a complete cultural chronology from Neolithic to NBPW phase but the main importance of Senuwar lays in the techno-economic and early farming activities of the Middle Gaṅgā Plains. As early as the early Neolithic (2200- 2000 BCE) phase domestication of animals, incipient farming, cultivation of oryza sativa variety of rice started in Senuwar. A promising microlithic industry having small polished celts, food processing items like pestle and saddle quern supported these activities. The ceramic assemblage of Senuwar consisted of Rusticated Ware, Burnished Ware, Corded Ware which were of Vindhyan origin and were found in plenty in the Vindhyan sites of Koldihwa, Mahagara. Fabric, surface treatment and typology of the wares in both places are similar. Other cultural traits of Senuwar potteries are analogous to the Vindhyan region. Senuwar, though physically located at the Middle Gaṅgā Plains it shared more cultural affinities with the Vindhyan region. While from Middle Gaṅgā sites of Bihar multicrop pattern was reported at Senuwar rice was the only crop produced. Rice husk and cattle pens were also noted at Koldihwa.

These cultural similarities are suggestive of a parallel growth of Vindhyan sites of Koldihwa and Mahagara and Middle Gaṅgā site of Senuwar. Probably they had a common origin and belonged to the same culture. Perhaps some groups, originally from the Belan valley and with knowledge of pottery, equipments, temporary shelter making, domestication of plants and animals, migrated and settled down at the foothills of the Kaimur hills. This was supported by actual archaeological evidences of the region. Several small settlements in the foothills of Kaimur were located in the districts of Rohtas and Kaimur. Their cultural and physical closeness to Senuwar implies they formed a settlement cluster with Senuwar as the central site.

Sites Sakas located 10 km south-west of Sasaram and Malaon at 8 km from the Sakas in the same direction could be reached by Sasaram-Darigaon road. These two sites were located at the district Rohtas and Daindih at Kaimur district. At Sakas a low mound with an occupational layer of 3-4 m was exposed. The Kaimur ranges are located just 2-3 km south east of these settlements a small stream flows at the same distance from them. Sakas offered an impressive pottery collection of Burnished Grey ware, Cord Impressed Ware, Rusticated Ware, Red Ware, BRW and BSW. NBPW sherds are also found in small quantity. Thus it furnished a complete cultural sequence. Daindih is located on the left bank of the river Kudra, a tributary of Durgawati at Bhabua sector. It is located within 20 km from each site of Senuwar, Sakas and Malaon and showed evidences of cultivation. Located in the advantageous dual ecological zones of foothills which supplied stones for manufacturing and shrubs on the hills offered habitats for small creatures and the vast alluvial plains, perfect for agriculture helped the settlements to grow at an early date.

R. S. Pappu in his study on Senuwar has noted that these small settlements were not only related to the parent settlement of Senuwar but were depended on them. He identified these sites to be temporary and seasonal settlements where a subsistent economy based on hunting gathering, pastoralism, hunting, craftswork may be done for the easy availability of materials.^[3] High Chalcolithic phase can be located all over the Middle Gaṅgā Plains in the 13^th- 12^th centuries BCE and in many sites Chalcolithism arose out of Neolithism as in the case of Senuwar. The site shows the basic uniformity between these two phases and the transition from one phase to another. Agriculture became very important throughout the Middle Gaṅgā Plains and Senuwar too belonged to the same tradition. Rich botanical remains were found in many Middle Gaṅgā sites including Senuwar suggested that despite paucity in metal use in the agricultural sector it had a promising growth. Iron made no change in the crop pattern and finds at Senuwar supports this. Senuwar entered its iron-NBPW phase around 7^th-6^th to 5^th- 4^th centuries BCE. Commonest household items found here were microliths, shell and bone objects. Iron objects reflected steel making was known to the people of Senuwar. At Senuwar transformation from Neolithic to Chalcolithic and Chalcolithic to Iron-NBPW is documented clearly. Senuwar provides complete techno-chronology of the lithic and early metal using communities of the Middle Gaṅgā Plains. This is found nowhere else so clearly. By the Kuṣāṇa period (1^st- 3^rd centuries CE) Senuwar entered into its structural phase as the find of bricks for house building suggested but the site could not attain urbanity because of its odd location, cut off from the main line of trade.

Growth of settlements from the late Stone Age to early historical phase in this pocket of the Middle Gaṅgā Plains had a strong ecological rationale created by the Belan valley, Kaimur region and alluvial plains of Bihar. Foothills of the Vindhyas drained by the Belan were the home of Neolithism in India. Twin geological components of hills and fertile alluvial plain provided suitable ecological conditions for the rise of Mesolithic culture. This may be demonstrated by the evidence of Chopani Mando. The stage of food gathering represented by the site was effectively replaced by food production of Koldihwa and Mahagara. So the foothills of the Vindhyas were the abode of the early men. Some of them might have migrated to other regions because of population rise and exhaustion of resources. The close lying area of the Kaimur hills, offering almost same ecological conditions was a natural choice of the people.^[4] The area of Vindhya-Kaimur forms a geographical unit. They are located at the juncture of the modern UP and Bihar. In our present research this area formed the common catchment area and intermediate zone of the two core areas of old Magadha and Kāśī kingdoms. Its ecological, economic and cultural importance is very relevant to urbanisation in these two sectors. In south Bihar the vast fertile lands also attracted people from very early times and this zone was dotted with small settlements mainly from the late Neolithic times and later. Agriculture had an early beginning in this area. Based on the evidences from the excavated sites of Paisara(Munger), Taradih (Bodhgaya), Senuwar (Rohtas), Maner (Patna), Chirand (Saran), Chechar Kutubpur (Vaishali), Oriup (Bhagalpur), Panr (Samastipur), and Ramchaura (Vaishali) a fair knowledge of early agricultural pursuits may be formed. Direct evidences of carbonised seeds were found at Taradih and Senuwar. From Neolithic Taradih specimens of wild and cultivated variety of rice, barley, lentils, grass peas were recovered. Wheat was introduced from the Chalcolithic times. Similar crop pattern was noted at Chirand. Another notable feature of the site is the chunks of mud lumps showing reed impressions. Having monsoonal climate rice and other crops could be cultivated by Chitta method, i.e. throwing seeds in the wetland. An overall collection of crops of the Neolithic times consisted of rice, barley, field pea, lentil, millet. Dwarfish wheat and kodon were introduced from the late Neolithic phase. During the rains, rivers received more water than they could contain and flooded the banks and created fresh cover of alluvium every year. This was suitable for natural growth of vegetations. It offered a steady supply of food to animals. The region ensured food security to both humans and animals naturally attracted early settlements. No ploughshare or digging stick was found suggesting grains were sown in soft, wet land after the rains. Saddle and quern found at sites implied they were used for separating grains from husks. Neolithic agriculture in south Bihar is characterised by its exclusive zonal nature with less cultural contacts with other similar cultures. Full-fledged farming activity was done on a pure professional and non-kinship relations. Finds of winnowing baskets, mullers, grinding stones denoted that ancillary agricultural operations were known and done by these people. A mean date of 2000BCE for these activities was suggested based on dates from different sites.^[5]

Maner, located in the Patna circle falls to the Pāṭaliputra circle of ancient times. It is a Neolithic and later site as found in the excavations. Archaeologically the site has a group of mounds located near the Gaṅgā. Cultural sequence of the middle mound located just south of the main mound shows fivefold cultural sequence. Period I is represented by Chalcolithic-BRW remains located from layers 9 to 6. BRW includes some plain and fire slipped specimens of usual household potteries. Period II is the NBPW phase deposited from layers 5 to 3. This was the structural phase is attested by remains of a terracotta ring well built by seven courses of bricks. Pottery obtained from upper layers includes NBPW and other associated wares. Small brick wall of the of the Gupta period having four phases of bricks was located here. Phase IV again corresponded to the Gupta period and the only structural example was the same brick wall but the antiquities were more sophisticated.^[6] Coming of NBPW phase marked building activities at Maner. A room like structure, floor, drain, courtyard, rows of rooms plastered brick built passage were unearthed.^[7] Neolithic deposit is found in the extreme south-west side of the main mound’s Layer I. Chalcolithic artefacts were also found here. Chief cultural objects of this phase were microlithic tools, stone pestles, Spindle and whorls.^[8] Features that deserve attention are firstly its location at the confluence of the Son and the Gaṅgā. This closeness to river might have helped to have an early beginning. Secondly the diverse types of potteries found in the site. From 3.45m thick deposit of Period I representing Neolithic stage potteries of Red and Grey wares of Plain and Burnished variety, Cream and Red Ware were obtained. From the Chalcolithic phase wheel made BSW, BRW specimens were found. Period III yields the usual NBPW potteries.^[9] The site was also located in the agriculturally rich zone of the Neolithic stratum. Exploiting all these factors Maner made a quick rise. By the NBPW phase structural activities started in Maner. Thus a comprehensive village life took shape at Maner even in the Neolithic times which can be seen in the agricultural activities in the area and a rich ceramic collection implying significant craft engagements. Later this site emerged as an important ferry point having a very close access to the two important rivers. Through the Son valley Pāṭaliputra maintained its easy contact with Sasaram area and Kaimur valley. This valley offered an easy access to central India and beyond. It is highly possible that Maner, being a big site with structural remains and having the advantageous location might have served as a junction and ferry point in this route. But a final word on Maner’s settlement type and function awaits more exploration of the site. However further exploration and study is required before reaching a conclusion of Maner’s role in this sector. With a Neolithic beginning and a continuous occupation since then, bigger size and structural remains Maner seems to be an important site in the Pāṭaliputra sector, which might have been a city site too.

Excavations have found out Neolithic layers at Taradih, located just south-east of the Mahabodhi temple of Bodhgaya. Currently the site is in a very bad shape, with thick and congested modern slum occupation at the site. It has been transformed into a dumping ground and other than the signboard of the Archaeological Survey of India, it is impossible to identify the site.(as found during the field trip) Starting from the Neolithic the site was under continuous occupation till the Gupta and even to the Pala times in the medieval times when it grew as a very important monastic site. More than that, the early beginning of culture in this area is important in our context. Neolithic phase forms period I at Taradih and it was located above the natural soil. Important antiquities related were handmade potteries of usual household use. Potteries were mainly of Burnished and plain Red Ware. Some hearths of different shapes and sizes were recovered from this phase. 13 The next phase is Chalcolithic that came with a much more elaborate material remain.

Wheel made potteries of both plain and painted variety started to come with a range of colours. The ceramic tradition was mainly based on BRW, RW types and was constituted mainly of household utensils. Stone tools, implements, beads of different stones, bone objects like heads of socketed, tanged and barbed variety were recovered. The only copper object found here was a copper fish hook. Ovens of various sizes found were might have been used for smelting copper other than normal cooking purpose. Remains of huts and rammed floor were also found here.^[10] located just 1 km away from Mahabodhi temple there is the site of Bakrour, where a circular brick stūpa, originally of the Gupta period and later enlarged can be located. This was erected to commemorate Sujātā’s offering of food to the Buddha during his severe penance. In memory of this maiden and the incident the place came to be known as Sujātāgarh.^[11] Location of extensive Neolithic village Taradih, presence of ancient village Uruvela on the riverbank Phalgu and Bakrour or Sujātā’s village make it a composite archaeological zone. Though this part of the Middle Gaṅgā Plains is not adequately excavated but the important Neolithic sites, Senuwar, Taradih or Maner all located in the broad zone of south Bihar which roughly corresponds to old Magadhan kingdom effectively demonstrated the possibility of a rich Neolithic horizon that marked the first human occupation of the zone in the 3^rd millennium BCE. Though the explored Neolithic sites in this region are few in number yet revealed a stable economy with agriculture on a pure professional basis, pastoralism, lithic industry and a craft aspect mainly related to pottery production. All these gave way to permanent human settlement in this terrain instead of seasonal camps which was the general settlement pattern in the pre-historic period. What is even more important is in the Neolithic phase a village life started in this area. So this may be taken as the beginning of a stable village life that is a necessary pre condition for settlement growth and urbanisation.

Geographically Magadha covers different types of tracts starting from the west first comes Ara or the Southern Son which included Buxar-Chausa stretch. To its south west there is the Kaimur plateau. Approaching towards east there are two close lying zones of Gaya-Bodhgaya region and the Rajgir hills. Crossing them the rich agricultural zone lying between Rajgir hills and the river Gaṅgā can be reached.^[12] It has already been shown that Kaimur plateau, Rohtas yielded significant Neolithic horizon. Moving towards the Gaya Bodhgaya sector an impressive Chalcolithic depositional layer may be noted. The Chalcolithic sites are many more in number and often preceded by Neolithic stage. However in many sites Chalcolithic stage marks the beginning of occupation. Whether preceded by Neolithic or not, Chalcolithic stage in almost all sites were succeeded by NBPW phase. Chalcolithism is suggestive of the life pattern developed here and Sonpur is a Chalcolithic site located near Bela railway station 24 km east of Gaya town on the Patna-Gaya line. Important finds of the site related to Chalcolithic phase were retrieved from the lowest layer adjacent to soil. These were crude wheel made potteries instead of handmade potteries of Neolithic phase belonging to miscellaneous wares like BRW, RW or BW. An associated bone industry was also in function as can be confirmed by the discovery of bone arrowheads, stylus and pins. Discovery of fair amount of animal bones, especially of cattle implied that pastoralism continued to be an important profession. Agriculture was practised here as is attested by the rice husk found on the potteries. No such structural remains were found in the site. In the late Chalcolithic times the coarse fabric of potteries was replaced by fine polish and simple geometrical designs were made on them. Some large urns were found that could have been used for burial purposes. Structural remains showed that circular huts were used for residential purposes. Copper objects were very few in number. A notable thing about Sonpur is the microliths found in a heap just a little away from the excavated site at Sonpur. These microliths belonged to the Mesolithic period. But at Sonpur the earliest layer was that of Chalcolithic phase. So there might have existed a Mesolithic layer in this zone. The village Bhelavar 10 kms east from Jehanabad on the Patna-Gaya line and very close to Ghosi police station. Pre-NBPW BRW sherds were found here. But the site was under continuous occupation through Kuṣāṇa, Gupta to Pāala period. From the evidences it appears that the site was occupied in the pre-NBPW times. BRW sherds were also found at the village Chillor, 25 km from Gaya. The type of potteries suggests their Chalcolithic legacy.^[13]

Third zone is comprised of Rajgir Hills. The main site was Rajgir in this belt. Passing it the fourth ecological sector of Bhagalpur-Munger corresponding to old Aṅga kingdom can be reached. The area is an agricultural plain, washed out by several hill streams, rich in forest products and minerals, particularly iron, copper and argentiferous galena. It is the converging zone of Middle Gaṅgā Plains and the Bengal Delta and provides an easy access to North Bihar, Chotanagpur-Santhal Pargana region. A number of pre-NBPW and NBPW sites were explored here. Jhimjhimiya-Kalisthan is located 3 kms to the south-west of Rajmahal. The site includes five villages named Kasaba, Phulbagh, Turtipar, Begampur and Godaganja. To the north of these villages there is a rampart along the lake. A fourfold cultural sequence was found there.^[14] Period I was represented by Pre-NBPW wheel turned coarse potteries of BRW, BSW varieties. Terracotta beads and iron rings were among other antiquities. In the period II mainly dominated by NBPW ceramics other associated wares like BRW, BSW, Grey Ware etc. In period III Śuṅga-Kuṣāṇa deposits may be found.^[15] In the Munger-Lakhisarai sector Uren is an important site of BRW phase. It is a modern village located atop of a mound. Though found in a much dilapidated condition the site might have developed from BRW times. The nearby Rajaona has a linear spread over a few km and therefore attained the status of a large village even if it cannot be called a city. The site was surrounded by numerous mounds. So the whole area is consisted of several small to medium settlements.

From the available evidences the Neolithic phase in South Bihar shows a clear evolution. Stage I (2300-1950 BCE) represented in Senuwar IA Mahagara-Koldihwa. Economy was based on agriculture and pastoralism but it only produced one crop namely rice. Animals were owned by the whole community. Domesticated rice was not enough for subsistence and was supported by wild species of grasses and hunting and capturing aquatic fauna. Stage II in the Neolithic phase saw cultivation of some new cereals and pulses like barley, dwarf wheat, millet, field pea, khesari etc. A two crop pattern evolved accompanied by other cultural changes. Taradih, Chirand, Chechar-Kutubpur and Maner have shown evidences of wide range of wheel made potteries, stone and bone objects, especially tools, beads of semi precious stones, occasional occurrence of copper objects created a rural agricultural base. In the succeeding Stage III the most important advancement was the introduction of copper. Remains of this phase were found at Senuwar, Chirand, Chechar-Kutubpur, Taradih, Maner etc. New species of wheat, millet, pulses, were produced, however no marked change in the lifestyle can be assigned to the coming of copper. Roughly in the 2^nd millennium BCE the Neolithic stage in south Bihar sees some important changes. Life began to be sedentary. While section of people was engaged in agriculture, some got into artisanal activities. Collection of craft objects from different sites was impressive. Neolithic-chalcolithic farmers worked out a relationship with their respective areas and peasant groups did not evolve in isolation. The Chalcolithic phase characterised by dominance of copper, Bihar seems to be self sufficient in collection of metal. Workmanship and skill of artisans in mining and smelting are of real high standard. In the Ranchi region there was a preponderance of tin alloys, lead and zinc mixtures. The copper hoards of South Bihar around 2000 BCE reached Gaṅgā-Yamuna valley in 1800- 1300 BCE. Copper items found at UP and Bihar zones are similar and probably copper found its way to UP from Bihar. Development of routes promoted lot of interchange of raw materials and metals surely constituted an important component of this trade. In case of some metals inter regional trade was necessary. Otherwise local trade sufficed the needs of early village communities. It is difficult to determine that what kind of social institutional framework regulated such regional trade but a two tier settlement level was making its clear appearance preceding the rise of regional centres.^[16]

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Arun Kumar Singh, Archaeology of the Magadha Region, New Delhi, Ramanand Vidya Bhavan, 1991, pp.34-35.

[2]:

Indian Archaeology, 1986- 87: A Review Ed. M. C. Joshi, New Delhi, ASI, 1992, p.26.

[3]:

Birendra Pratap Singh, Sakas, Malaon, Daindih-Important Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlements in districts of Rohtas and Kaimur, Bihar in Prāgdhārā, Journal of UP State Archaeology department, no.7, Ed. Rakesh Tiwari, 1996-97, pp.67-75.

[4]:

Birendra Pratap singh, Stages of Culture Development in the Middle Ganga Plains, in Prāgdhārā, Journal of the UP State Archaeological Department, no. 11, 2000-01, ed. Rakesh Tiwari, Lucknow, pp.109- 11.

[5]:

Ajit Kumar Prasad, Beginning of Farming at Bihar-A case study, in Prāgdhārā, Journal of the UP State Archaeological Department, Ed. Rakesh Tiwari, no. 16, 2005-06, Lucknow, pp.154-6.

[6]:

Indian Archaeology, 1996- 97: A Review, ASI, New Delhi, 2002, p.6.

[7]:

Indian Archaeology, 1987- 88: A Review, ASI, New Delhi, 1993, pp.11-12.

[8]:

Indian Archaeology, 1989- 90: A Review, ASI, New Delhi, 1994, pp.10-11.

[9]:

Indian Archaeology, 1988- 89: A Review, ASI, New Delhi, 1993, pp.7-8.

[10]:

(Arun Kumar Singh, op.cit., 1991, pp.41-42.

[11]:

Indian Archaeology, 2001-02: A Review, ASI, New Delhi, 2008, p. 21

[12]:

Dilip K. Chakrabarti, Archaeological Geography of the Ganga Plain, New Delhi, Permanent Black, 2001, p.187.

[13]:

Arun Kumar Singh, op.cit., 1991, pp.38- 42.

[14]:

Excavation at Rajmahal, Jhimjhimiya-Kalisthan, district Sahebganj, IAR, 1987- 88, Ed. M. C. Joshi, ASI, New Delhi, 1993,p.12.

[15]:

Excavation at Rajmahal, Jhimjhimiya-Kalisthan, district Sahebganj, Indian Archaeology, 1988- 89: A Review, Ed. M. C. Joshi, ASI, New Delhi, 1993, pp.8-9.

[16]:

Dilip K. Chakrabarti, The Archaeology of Ancient Indian Cities, Oxford, 1995, pp. 162- 64.