1.2. Western India: Stratigraphic Analyses of Trade Dynamics

Sites yielding material indicators of Mediterranean trade have a widespread distribution in western India. In fact, nearly every major Early Historic sites in the region have yielded Roman artefacts (Figs. 39, 40). The distribution of

IMPORTANT HISTORIC SITES OF WESTERN INDIA VADNAGAR SHAMALAJI DWARKA NAGARA AMRELI BHARUCH TO MATHURA 257 UJJAIN AREA OF MAP MAHESHWAR R.Narmada" R.Tapi TO KAUSAMB KAUNDINYA PUR PRAKASHE DHATVA BAHAL NASIK SOPARA NEVASA KALYAN JUNNAR BHOKARDAN PAITHAN R.Godavari TER X KARAD NERLE R.Krishna R.Bhima XITE PIMPALGAON ☑ KOLHAPUR ①EHS:::: yeilding mediterranean artifacts, 11- Trade route Fig. 40 ADAM PAUNAR

CONCORDANCE & & CO-RELATION OF A B C D E F PERIOD VI MUSLIM-MARATHA. LAYERS, NVS GHI X 1 1 G.C 1 IG 16 1 1 1 IG 1 A-P. la BR la BR la BR la BR PERIOD V INDO-ROMAN 2 BR,G 3 BRAP 28 R, BR 2 BRY 3 BR, A 2 BR. 3 BR, A 5 BR. 5 BR RP 6 BR.R.A 5 BR A R-P la BR.G 10 BR la BR, la BR.G. 2 BR, 3 BR 3 BR BR ABRA BA¯¯ 5 BR SAMBR SAMBR SA.BR.+ 6 BRA-6 BRAMAR 6 BAR-P 6 BR 4 BR,A|4 BR.AA 4 BR.A-C 4 BRAM BR 2 BR, 3 BR 2 BRU 3 BR 2 GCBR 2 BR.A, 2 BR R-P MR 7 BR 7 BRA,C 7 BRAR-F 7 BR 6 BR 5 BRAM 6 BR BRO 8 BR. 7 BR BR. 3 BRO 3 BR, 3 BRN PERIOD IV 6 BR 7 BR 6 BR 7 BA 9 BR 9 BR 8 BR 9 BR 4 BR 9 BR 8 BR 7 BR 8 BR EARLY HISTORIC 10 BR 10 BR 9 BR BBR 11 BR 9 BR 10 BR 9 BR 12 BR, WEATHERED HORIZON 13 10 11 10 10 5 4 100 P 10 P 10 P 9 P 14 P 11 P 12 P 11 P 6 P 5 P PERIOD I|| 11 P 10 P 15 P 12 P OP 12 P 12 P 11 P 16 13 P BP CHALCOLITHIC POTTERY N - NBP G = GLAZED C = CELADON BR = BLACK-AND-RED COINS 5 R-ROULETTED ETTED A=AMPHORA M-MEGARIAN A-C.ANDHRA CRISS-CROSS P PAINTED POTTERY R-P-RED POLISHED WARE WARE 0 = SADAVAHANA 0-PUNCH-MARKED 18 19 SIRI SATAKANI + = LATE SATAVAHANA A-BULLAE C-MUSLIM Fig. 41 After Sankalia et al, 1960 258

259 e Mediterranean artefacts in western India suggests that Roman commodities were reaching far-flung areas of the region. Interestingly, in the Early Historic horizons of western India the 'syncretic' Indo-Roman objects (especially fine RPW) appear in association with Roman material (Fig. 43). The regularity of occurrence of stratified Roman artefacts in the numerous excavated sites in the region points to possibilities of reconstructing archaeological patterns of Indo-Roman trade Specifically, the analysis proposed here is initiated from a "central" context or type-site. Selection of the type-site has been made on the consideration that its stratigraphy offers the "best" scope for analysis relative to other contemporaenous sequences. For the reasons given below the site of Nevasa in the western Deccan (Fig. 40) is chosen for type-site analysis. 1.2.1. Nevasa as Type Site (1) A prerequisite for undertaking the analyses is the presence of clearly recognizable Mediterranean artefacts in Early Historic strata. In this regard, the suitability of Nevasa as a type-site is suggested by the fact that it yields 63 amphorae sherds. Besides, Nevasa yields a rich corpus of 'syncretic' Indo-Roman artefacts including the finest RPW and imitations of Roman coins in clay, lead and gold (Sankalia et al. 1960:200-202,307-314). More important is the fact that amphorae occur at Nevasa along 8 consecutive layers, indicating enduring Indo-Mediterranean interaction. The only other sites revealing a comparable amphora sequence Arikamedu and Alagankulam- are outside western India. (2) The presence of a conspicous 'pre-Roman contact' sub-phase is critical to our analysis. Nevasa reveals a thick Early Historic stratum prior to the appearance of Mediterranean material: a maximum of 5 layers making up the Early Historic levels of Pd. IV (Fig. 41). (3) Nevasa reveals evidence of uninterrupted industrial activity across the Early Historic Pd. IV\V levels. The Nevasan industries comprise semi-precious stone and shell working, glass manufacture and glass working and ivory carving (Table 5). All these products are mentioned in textual sources as items of IndoRoman trade (see Chapter III). (4) Nevasa is located at the crossroads of ancient trade routes connecting the western Deccan to major trading ports on the Gulf of Khambhat and Arabian Sea (Routes C + D in Fig. 39). The site is merely 60 km from Paithan, the capital of the Satavahana dynasty and a major market-town on the trans-peninsular trade route mentioned in the Periplus (51). The settlement itself lay squarely on the

260 Pratisthanpatha, the royal road from Paithan to the great Konkan ports of Kalyana and Sopara. Analysis Proper The ancient site of Nevasa (19 34' N, 75 E) is situated on the banks of the river Pravara, a tributary of the Godavari, in the Ahmadnagar district of Maharashtra. The main mound-area, locally known as Ladmod (880 x 330 ft) overlooks the Pravara on its south bank. Ladmod was excavated by H.D. Sankalia and his team from Deccan College, Pune between 1954-56 and again between 1959- 61 (Sankalia et al. 1960; Indian Archaeology - A Review Luders 1954-55:5-9; 1955-56:8-11; 1959-60:25-28; 1960- 61:19-21). The diggings revealed a multi-cultural stratigraphic sequence of the Palaeolithic, Chalcolithic, Early Historic and Medieval periods. In the present study, our concern is exclusively with the Early Historic period, i.e., Nevasa Pd.IV and V. Mediterranean amphorae constitute the primary material indicators of Roman contact with Nevasa. A total of 63 amphora sherds were retrieved from Pd. V levels and the upper layers of Pd.IV (Sankalia et al. 1960:280-281). Significant from our point of view is the fact that amphora occurrence at Nevasa is continuous along 8 consonant layers of the Early Historic Pd.IV-V (Fig. 41). A similar sequence is observed at the coastal site of Arikamedu (Pondicherry) where amphorae occur in all Early Historic phases (Wheeler et al. 1946:41-46). The excavator of the site, Mortimer Wheeler, regarded the 'continuous supply of amphorae at Arikamedu' as indicative of direct Roman sea trade. Like Arikamedu, the presence of an amphora sequence at Nevasa suggests that Mediterranean commercial interaction with this ancient settlement was enduring and constant over a certain period (see Pl. V.a.b.c.d. for specimens of amphorae from Nevasa). Interestingly, the point of initial appearance of amphorae in the Early Historic strata at Nevasa - indicating beginning of Roman contact - is accompanied by changes in material culture. In the words of the excavators: - "The third phase (Pd.V) was only a continuation of the second one (Pd.IV), as it was not altogether different from the latter. Its most important feature was the gradual disappearance of the black and red ware and the emergence of the fine Red Polished Ware with sherds of the imported Mediterranean amphora. The occurrence of the latter indicated trade with the Roman World, the effect thereof being reflected in the construction of houses, which were now built on an extremely well-laid foundation" (Indian Archaeology - A Review Luders 1954-55:7). The points These crucial observations suggest the direction of analyses. enunciated in the above extract are paraphrased thus: (a) Pd IV and V constitute one

261 continuous occupational deposit (b) the Black and Red Ware (BRW) gradually disappears' at the point of emergence of the Red Polished Ware (RPW) and Mediterranean amphorae (c) the amphorae indicate Mediterranean trade contact (d) the quality of habitational structures improves at the point of BRW RPW/Amphora transition and (e) the better structures are due to the beneficient impact of Roman trade. 1.2.2. BRW RPW & Amphora Transition The BRW-RPW & Amphora transition is taken here as a yardstick for studying concomitant changes in the Nevasan stratigraphy. The generalisations emerging from the analyses will be tested against evidence from five 'Roman-contact' sites in western India: Brahmapuri/Kolhapur, Nagara, Paunar, Bhokardan and Dhatva. These excavated sites are widely dispersed over western India and can be thus taken, together, as representative sites for the region (Fig. 40). Situating the conclusions from Nevasa in a broader stratigraphic context will serve to raise the generalisations from 'local' to 'regional' applications. Stratified evidence from Early Historic sites other than the five representative sites will also be integrated into the analyses. We know that the main BRW bearing layers at Nevasa are those of Pd.IV. Of course, this pottery does not actually 'disappear' at the point of initial occurrence of RPW and amphora in the Pd. IV\V overlap layers but considerably reduces in quantity (Sankalia et al. 1960:276,481). The primary BRW forms at Nevasa and elsewhere in western India are rimless bowls and shallow dishes produced by inverted firing. Most of them possess a highly burnished exterior (Sankalia et al. 1960:259-264,276,286, Fig. 42). The BRW is a diagnostic ceramic of Early Historic western India The typical bowl and dish shapes begin to occur from the lowest Early Historic levels and precede the appearance of the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) in the region (Banerjee 1965:217-218). The BRW was the deluxe ceramic of the pre-RPW period (Sankalia, Subbarao and Deo 1958:134-135, Deo and Gupte 1974:110) Its similarity in terms of form and fabric with the earlier Megalithic Black-and- Red Ware tradition has been noticed (Sankalia and Deo 1955:60-61; Sankalia, Subbarao and Deo 1958:134; Subbarao 1958:173-179). The Megalithic - Early Historic BRW transmission is particularly clear at Kaundinyapura (Dikshit 1968:32-70) where the finest burnished bowls and dishes occur in the Megalithic levels and continue uninterrupted into the Early Historic strata, becoming progressively coarser in the upper layers.

Fig. 42 Common Black-and-Red Ware from Nevasa 262

263 The qualitative and quantitative decline of BRW has been observed in a number of Early Historic sites of western India. We already know that the BRW finds at Nevasa become scanty at the point of occurrence of RPW and Mediterranean amphora. In this regard let us now focus upon the representative sites selected for analysis. Excavations at Paunar (Deo and Dhavalikar 1968:16-69) yielded BRW in all four Early Historic phases (Pds. I, IIA, IIB, III). A progressive deterioration in the quality of the ware was observed across the four periods. In Pd.IIB, which marks the appearance of RPW and amphora, the BRW is seen to continue 'but gets thicker and the finer varieties less and less in quantity' (Deo and Dhavalikar 1968:41). At Bhokardan (Deo and Gupte 1974:82-117), the BRW -RPW & Amphora shift has been taken as the basis for demarcating the Early Historic sub-phases Pd.Indian Antiquary and IB. Pd.Indian Antiquary (layers 6 and 5) is devoid of RPW and the BRW is the dominant deluxe ceramic. The succeeding Pd. IB (layers 4 and 3) yield the RPW and amphora. The Bhokardan excavation report contains no information about the quantum of BRW in Pd.IB relative to Pd.Indian Antiquary However a deterioration in the quality of the ware is indicated from layer 4 ('ware has relatively thick sides' - Deo and Gupte 1974:91) to layer 3 ('sherds with thicker sides' - Deo and Gupte 1974:103). In the next Pd.II the ware was 'consistently represented by less bulk' (Deo and Gupte 1974:110). Though the reported evidence from Brahmapuri/Kolhapur (Sankalia and Dikshit 1952:59), Nagara (Mehta 1968:73-78) and Dhatva (Mehta and Chowdhary 1975:8-9,63) does not reveal the BRW - RPW & Amphora seriation, we are informed that BRW begins before the RPW and amphora. Furthermore, coming to the other sites, diggings at Maheshwar revealed a progressive reduction in the quantity and quality of BRW across the Early Historic periods IV, V and VI (Sankalia, Subbarao and Deo 1958:137, 143, 150). The RPW appeared in Pd. VI when both the quantity and quality of BRW were at the lowest (Sankalia, Subbarao and Deo 1958:159-162). At Bahal, the BRW first occurs in Pd.II. However in sub-period A of the succeeding Pd.III 'the variants of the Black and Red Ware, abundant in the preceding period disappeared, but the main ware continued...' (Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology Vol.II:40). At Prakashe, the BRW which is the principal ceramic of Pd.Il goes into disuse in Pd.III while the RPW makes its appearance (Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology Vol.II:350- 351). At Timbarva (Dist. Baroda, Gujarat), the Early Historic Pd.I 'represented by layers 8,7,6 and 5 is characterised by the Red and Black Ware in association with the

264 ' N.B.P. In the succeeding Pd.II 'the Red and Black pottery becomes extinct and only very minor sherds are occasionally seen. And new pottery types, viz., the Red Polished Ware are found' (Mehta 1955:5-6; italics mine). The BRW-RPW transition was also observed at Bharuch where K.V. Soundarajan of the A.S.I. conducted a limited excavation. The brief report on the excavation, appearing in Indian Archaeology - A Review Luders (1959:19) informs that the strata of Pd.I, about 5 to 10 ft thick, yielded black-and-red ware in good bulk The types in black-and-red ware comprised the lota shaped pot, dish, bowl and lid, devoid of any painting and generally thick-sectioned but mostly with a fine burnished slip. Their analogues, by way of stratigraphic context and cultural ensemble, can be seen at such sites as Timbarva (Period I) and Nasik (Period II). ..Period II was characterised by the occurrence of fragments of the Red Polished Ware in its lower levels. A few black-and-red ware sherds were also encountered in disturbed trenches in the lower levels of this Period'(Indian Archaeology - A Review Luders 1959-60:19;emphasis mine). The BRW evidence examined above reveals a regular pattern over widely dispersed sites. The pattern suggests that the BRW decline was taking place over western India as a whole. Closely linked to the BRW decline is the 'displacement' of this pottery as a deluxe ware by the fine RPW. Significantly, Mediterranean amphorae invariably occur in association with the RPW. In fact, almost all stratified artefacts of Roman origin inspiration occur in association with RPW and are hardly to be found in the pre-RPW levels in western India. This trend is observed in the Early Historic profiles of 15 excavated sites in western India (Fig. 43). The RPW itself, in terms of the issue of its origin, is part of the discourse on Indo-Roman trade. In the detailed discussion on the RPW undertaken in chapter II it was posited that the finer varieties of the ware can be traced to the terra sigillata tradition. The RPW collection from Nevasa is important in the context of the position taken above. Of particular significance are sherds from Nevasa Pd.V possessing brick-red slip and stamped decorations and motifs on the exterior (Pl. XV.a, XVI.b). Begley (1992:157-196) has compared similar pottery from Ter and Kondapur with Mediterranean red wares of the historical period. The appearance of RPW & amphorae at Nevasa are concomitant with the occurrence of Early Satavahana coins which, as discussed in Chapter II (under Amphora section), have been dated to the last quarter of the 1 st century B.C. In other sites of western India, especially those detailed in Fig. 43, RPW appears invariably in association of chronological 'markers' of the B.C./A.D. transition period

Maheshwar ( Pd. VI } Bri Nasik P.) (Pd. m ) es: Saman Ware sherd: Moulded RPV sherds resembling Samian Ware: -as: RPV showing Medrerranean lass: intence: Nevasa ( Pd. Y ) Mediterranean amphora sherds: rim-fragment of Roman glass vessel; Roman blue glass beads-bangles (?); goid, le eu and terracotta bullae: RPW Amphora sherd (?) resembling terra sigillata; copper dish with central Bhokardan ( Pd. 1 b) Mediterranean amphora sherds "Megarian-like" RPV: clay bullae in imitation of Tiberius coins: Roman blue glass beads (?) n ents "' " nean ally [ Pd. IV-V } catrops omphalos; terracotta masks. ( Pd. IV ) amphorae sherds ; Adam Ter Paunar Nagara Shamalaji Dwarka Dhatva ( Pd. V ] ( Pt. 1 } ( PA. Hb ) [ Pd. In ] | Pd. N } { Pd. ■ } (P&N) Denari of Tiberius Clay bullae: Clay and Faience Bullae Roman blue glass beads (7), Anchorse fragments. Amphorae fragments Amphorae itagments Amphorae fragments Amphorae fragments Roman figure (?) in clay Imitations of Roman lamps. ( Pd. 1 } (P&la) ( PL IV ) | Pd. 1) [Pd. Ha) [ Pd. 1. H } The carrops may be intgenous Sara aus and Deo 1955 The suspected amphora sherd 15 & triple-grooved remiacorta handle. Fig. 103 No 1 m escavation report. Sankaba Subbarao and Deo 135 E Amphorae and "Megarian-like" RPV sherds found in Pd. IV belong to the uppermost layers of this period. These upper layers represent, in mg opinion, the Pd. IV-V overlap level and thus should not be viewed as proper BRW phase Sankalia et al 1960 An Indian ivory Figurine found in Pd. 1 b is similar in style, size and detail to the ivory nourines from Tar and the Roman city - site of Pompei Amphorae and Roman glass vesse round on 540329 Above penodic classification from Chapesar's report Sopara Early Historie Phase Amphorae kagments Bharuch [ Pd X ) APW in Pd.1. Amphora appears in Pd 1. No BRW phase encountered probably due to limited cuttings. [Pd. 1] No BRV mentioned for Pd. 1. Howver report refers to this phase as Excavation report indicates that amphorae were red from upper layers of anterior to PPV Pa where the occurrence. FPV occurred. Excavation by ASI in 1992 Early mistoric and Medieval Phase uncovered (PLI) Moulded por handle with fossette. Stamped rossettes on pot. Prof. J. F. Salles (personal communication ) suggests a Persian Gulf provenance for stamped ressente motifs on pottery. Deo and Gupte 1974 Amrendra Nath: Personal Comm Chape a: 1969 Mehta 1968. Jurendra Nat. 1730 Indian Archaeology - A Review Luders 1957-59: 66-67; 67-65 65-6974-75 | Deo and Dhavalik.ar 1968. Ansari and Mate 1966 Ansari and Mate Mehta and 1966. Choudhary 1975. Antigone Marangou - Lerat Personal Communication Information from James Howell of Society for South Fig. 43 Mediterranean Artefacts in the RPW-Amphora Phase and BRW Phase in 15 excavated Early Historic sites in Western India K. V. Soundara Rajan in Indian Archaeology - A Review Luders 1959-60.

266 The appearance of the Hellenistic RPW together with the Mediterranean amphorae at Nevasa, and elsewhere, indicates the point of Roman contact in the archaeological record. As we shall discuss, the BRW - RPW & Amphora seriation represents deeper processess of change than merely a sudden proliferation of pottery types 1.2.3. BRW - RPW & Amphora Transition and Habitational Structures A development at the point of BRW RPW & Amphora transition observed by the excavators of Nevasa concerns changes in the quality of habitations To reproduce part of the observation cited above 'The occurrence of the latter (Mediterranean amphorae) indicated trade with the Roman World, the effect thereof being reflected in the construction of houses, which were built on an extremely welllaid foundation' (Indian Archaeology - A Review Luders 1954-55:7). This intrinsic connection drawn by the excavators suggests the beneficient impact of Roman trade on the economic life of the Nevasans whose new found prosperity is reflected in the construction of better houses A heavy concentration of structures was noticed from Pd.IV onwards. The constructions, in fact, 'defined the strata' (Sankalia et al. 1960:17) What specifically are the changes noticed in the Early Historic habitational structures at Nevasa? On the whole the basic features of the structures in Pd IV-V (synonymous with BRW-RPW transition) remain the same (Sankalia et al. 1960:53). In both periods the habitations constituting of single storey houses with black clay foundations, lime and mortar flooring, soak pits, bamboo supports for roofs and use of terracotta roof tiles (Sankalia et al. 1960:29-53). tiles (Sankalia et al. 1960:29-53). However, the Pd V structures showed sharp improvement in quality of building material. The black clay foundation came to be strengthened with undressed stones, better brick-lined soak pits appeared and the walls were now made of fired bricks instead of mud (Sankalia et al. 1960:53). Pd. V also showed greater frequency of floor levels than Pd.IV, indicating heightened building activity across the BRW - RPW & Amphora divide (Fig. 44). The improvement in quality of habitations was noticed in the five representative Roman-contact sites as wellBrahmapuri/Kolhapur Habitational structures similar to Nevasa Pd V have come to light in Brahmapuri. The structures have pebbly black-clay foundation filling and brick-lined floors. The roofs were covered with terracotta tiles Both firedbricks and sun-dried bricks were used for building the walls (Sankalia and Dikshit 1952:26-32, 135-140). The complex of brick houses belongs to the Satavahana

267 Period at Brahmapuri which has also yielded Mediterranean amphorae (Sankalia 1957:207-208) and the Red Polished Ware ('imported ware' in report, Sankalia and Dikshit 1952:61). According to the excavators these 'fine brick houses probably came into existence about the 1 st century A.D., owing perhaps to to a prosperous trade with Rome and the western world' (Sankalia and Dikshit 1952:140). Evidence of structural activity was not noticed in the pre-Satavahana levels. In Square I, where the sounding was made upto the trap-rock it was seen that the foundation of the Satavahana houses lay almost over the natural soil, indicating a negligible pre-Satavahana phase (Sankalia and Dikshit 1952:10-23). comparing the However, Brahmapuri provides us an opportunity for Satavahana structures with habitations in the post-Satavahana phase. Three layers of gravel flooring with multiple post-holes have been uncovered above the Satavahana brick houses. The presence of thick red debris in the post-Satavahana layers suggest the use of brick-bats in the making of the structures (Sankalia and Dikshit 1952:25,29). In contrast to the habitations of the Satavahana phase the stuctures of the post-Satavahana period seem to be 'hurriedly constructed' judging from the multiple floor levels close together and the large number of post-holes (32 nos.) spread in an unplanned manner. The post-Satavahana structures show a deterioration in quality of habitations relative to the planned Satavahana Period brick houses (Sankalia and Dikshit 1952:24). Paunar Excavations conducted by Nagpur University in 1967 at the site of Paunar revealed nine layers of occupational deposit which were categorized into five periods: I, IIA, IIB, III and IV (Deo and Dhavalikar 1968). Pd.IIA and IIB constitute the BRW levels. This period gave 'evidence of a series of lime floors' (Deo and Dhavalikar 1968:8). In Pd.IIA 'At least four major floor levels could be discerned' (Deo and Dhavalikar 1968:8). Pd.IIB, which is a virtual continuation of IIA, has been distinguished by the excavators because of the appearance of the Mediterranean amphorae and the Red Polished Ware (Indian Archaeology - A Review Luders 1966-67:27). Of the structures of Pd.IIB the report informs:- 'The most remarkable feature of the houses of this period was that they were equipped with ringwells for drainage, storage jars for storage purposes and tiles for roofs' (Deo and Dhavalikar 1968:9).

G H CHART SHOWING DIFFERENT FLOOR LEVELS: NEVASA. PERIOD PERIOD B C D E ..... ☐ Fig. 44 Chart showing different floor levels in Nevasa Pd. IV & V After Sankalia et al 1960 268

269 Though not as clear as Nevasa, Kolhapur and Bhokardan, the Satavahana houses of Pd.IIB at Paunar fall in line with the general pattern of 'superior' structures which appear in association with Mediterranean material in the Early Historic strata of sites in western India. Nagara: The sequence of habitational structures at Nagara show the trend of simple beginnings to sudden improvement to relative deterioration In the words of the excavators: - 'Towards the Early centuries of the Christian Era this village (Nagara in Pd.I and II) began expanding to become a large town due to the commercial interests. This was the most flourishing period at Nagara. Brick buildings were erected, and general prosperity of the town is seen in the use of imported objects from the Roman World, as well as from Central Asia' (Mehta 1968:9). But then in the later stages of Pd.III 'prosperity slowly began to wither and structures of mud- brick and mud- huts sprang up on the ruins of this town. The habitation began to shrink and large parts of the town were given up' (Mehta 1968:9). Bhokardan: The successive Early Historic levels of Bhokardan display clear shifts in the nature of habitational structures. Essentially, the changes follow the pattern observed at Nagara: better quality habitations in the RPW & Amphora levels (Pd.IB) relative to the BRW phase (Pd.Indian Antiquary) followed by a 'decline' in the succeeding Pd.II. The report on the structural activity at Bhokardan, sharply delineates the changes:- 'The habitation in Period Indian Antiquary which was evidenced in some of the trenches on Mound I, was marked by floors rammed with murum, black clay and lime. Though it is not possible to make any meaningful observation regarding the size and plan of the houses, these appear to have been very simple structures raised on posts supporting probably thatched roof. The absence of burnt or mud-bricks is significant The only positive evidence is the use of chullas which have hardly changed their form since then. The structures of Pd IB which follow, evidence the change brought about by the habitants of ancient Bhogavardhana. There are now structures with a properly laid foundation,

270 Dhatva: better floors which are made of tiles rammed in clay or lime, planned technique of laying burnt bricks, soak-wells of bricks and pottery rings, acquaintance with sanitary structures and over and above all, a conscious attempt to arrive at a plan of a house with pottery tiles fixed on the rafters of a sloping roof supported by wooden posts. The evidence of Period II shows the continuance of the use of earlier innovations like the ring-wells, but it is marked by an intense pit digging activity. The latter, though by itself not a proof of degeneration of habitational pattern, might be taken to bespeak of the diminishing importance of the trade centre, after the fall of Satavahana power'(Deo and Gupte 1974.15- 16). The report on the Dhatva excavations is not very clear about changes in structural activity. However at one point we are informed by the excavators that Early Historic Dhatva had 'brick buildings' and that 'it seems to have been a fairly flourishing village settlement' (Mehta and Chowdhary 1975:4). The report informs that 'The early settlers of this period (Early Historic) smelted iron, used a variety of pottery, and at a later stage began constructing houses of bricks' (Mehta and Chowdhary 1975:63; emphasis mine). The 'later stage' at Dhatva Pd II must surely be consonant with the upper layers where the Red Polished Ware and Amphorae are found. Other Sites An expansion of building activity concommitant with the occurrence of RPW is also noticed at Vadnagar, Maheshwar and Shamalaji For the Early Historic Pd.II at Vadnagar, which saw the appearance of the RPW, we are informed that 'this period represented by layers (4) to (11) seems to be the most flourishing stage of this area. A number of well-built structures were noticed in the excavation' (Subbarao and Mehta 1955:23). At Maheshwar, the BRW-NBPW phase of occupation (Pd.IV) reveals habitational structures in the form of 'small huts with wooden posts and floors made of fine clay and lime' (Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology Vol.II:266). The succeeding Pd VI, which saw the appearance of RPW 'marks the most active phase of construction at Maheshwar' indicated by baked brick structures and terracotta roof tiles' (Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology Vol II:267).

271 At Shamalaji, the RPW & Amphora phase is represented by Pds I and III (layers 12-8) (Mehta and Patel 1967:17). Specifically, Pd.II marks the advent of amphora (layers 11-8). This period also witnesses the first phase of fortifications of Early Historic Shamalaji. The excavators. are of the opinion that Shamalaji functioned as an 'intermediate station' for flow of trade (especially IndoMediterranean trade) between the Arabian Sea ports and the interior of Rajasthan and this factor probably led to the further development of this town' (Mehta and Patel 1967:51-52). The sense of an 'enhancement' in economic prosperity is evident in the improvements observed in the habitational structures of Early Historic western India In particular, the rise in living standards in the RPW phase is indicated by the prolific use of baked bricks to construct individual habitations. That baked brick constituted expensive building material is suggested by its limited use in domestic constructions in the BRW phase. The higher value of baked brick relative to mudbrick is suggested in other space/time contexts: At Kalibangan, in the pre-Harappan Pd I levels, it was observed that the houses were built of mud-brick and baked bricks were specifically employed for lining drains, ovens and cylindrical pits (Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology Vol II:194- 195). In the Parthian levels of the Early Historic site of Sanghol (Dist. Ropar, Punjab), it was noticed that mud-brick habitations had been provided with firedbrick frontals. In the succeeding Kushana Phase baked-bricks completely replaced mud-bricks in the domestic constructions (G.B. Sharma: personal communication). Even in present times, 'pucca' houses of burnt-brick are regarded as sign of affluence in many parts of rural India. It is important to note that the structures discussed in relation to the BRW-RPW seriation are essentially habitational/domestic In restricting the analysis to habitational structures, we directly relate to the economic capacity' of the individual or family rather than that of the community as a whole. The underlying implication of this approach is that it is harder for individuals/families to invest in superior (i.e.,expensive) building material (burnt-brick, terracotta tiles in the Early Historic context) for constructing their own habitations than in pooling resources and building a 'community' structure such as a stupa or temple. 'common' houses We may also remember that the inhabitants of the constituted the skilled and unskilled labour-input into the local economy A discernible growth of the local economy would obviously have a positive impact on the quality of living of the common people. This qualitative change in the standard of

272 The living would, among other things, be reflected in the quality of habitations. connection between structural activity and economic growth in the context of IndoMediterranean trade is taken up in the next section. 1.2.4. BRW-RPW & Amphora Transition and Export-Commodity Production Together with semi-precious stoneworking, the continuos Pd.IV-V deposits at Nevasa reveal evidence of glass beadmaking/manufacture (Sankalia et al. 1960:354-374, 453), shell bead/bangle crafting (Sankalia et al. 1960:361, 458-465) and ivory bangle/ring carving (Sankalia et al. 1960:465-469). All four Nevasan manufactures (semi-precious stone, glass, shell and ivory. craft products) were current as exchange-commodities in Indo-Mediterranean trade in western India. The evidence of semi-precious stone supplies from Paithan has been noted. The Periplus (section 48) also mentions semi-precious stone arriving at Barygaza from Ozene (Ujjain). This is substantiated by the discovery of a flourishing agate/carnelian bead industry in the Early Historic levels at Ujjain (Indian Archaeology - A Review Luders 1956-57:27). In the Geographia, Ptolemy mentions the existence of a 'sardonyx mountain' in the vicinity of the Narmada (Francis, Jr. 1987). This is obviously a reference to the rich agate-bearing area of Ratanpur in Bharuch district of Gujarat where evidence of mining of semi-precious stone ore in the B.C.-A.D. changeover has come to light (K.K. Bhan, Dept. of Archaeology, Baroda University Personal Communication). The Periplus (section 49) mentions the import of Roman raw glass through the port of Barygaza. Probable Roman blue glass beads and bangles found at Brahmapuri (Sankalia and Dikshit 1952:117), Nevasa (Sankalia et al. 1960:446) and Bhokardan (Deo and (Deo and Gupte 1974:131) in the context of material remains of manufacturing suggests that imported glass was being worked together with the indigenous. Fragments of Roman glass vessels have been found at Paithan, Nevasa and Ter (Stern 1992: 115-117;see Chapter II for details on Roman glass in India). The Periplus mentions shell of marine animals (tortoise, nautilus) as an item of Roman import (Periplus Maris Erythraei 56,63; Casson 1989:16). Marine shells were being worked at Nevasa (Sankalia et al. 1960:539-549), Nagara (Mehta 1968:127-132) and Bhokardan (Deo and Gupte 1974:28-29) among other places (Chapter III). Ivory is listed among Roman imports from western India (Periplus Maris Erythraei 49). An Indian ivory figurine found at the Roman city-site of Pompei (Cimino and Scialpi 1974:28-29) has close stylistic affinity with the ivory figurine from Bhokardan (Deo and Gupte 1974:188-190; see discussion under Ivory in Chapter III ).

273 Clearly then, the manufactures of Nevasa were integral exchangecommodities in Indo-Mediterranean trade. That the Nevasans must have been actively involved in supplying these commodities to Romans either directly or through middlemen is strongly suggested by the amphorae continuum across 8 layers of Pd.V. It is posited that the Nevasan-Roman commodity trade was a factor in enhancing the living standards of Nevasans as reflected in the construction of superior burnt-brick habitations at the point of the RPW and Amphora at the site. - In the analysis that follows the four Nevasan industries are subjected to a comparative study specifically focusing upon the relative quanties of 'finished' material recovered from the BRW RPW & Amphora phases (Pd. IV-V with regard to Nevasa; Table 5). In the present study, the evidence of 'finished' products (beads, bangles etc) is regarded primarily as indices of production (rather than consumption) because of the material being found in the context of industrial activity. The trends observed at Nevasa will be 'tested' against evidence of exportcommodity production from the five representative sites. V. Nevasa: The Deccan College excavations revealed a rich bead/bangle making industry in the Early Historic Pds. IV and The use of stone for bead/banglemaking was in conjunction with glass, shell and ivory The Nevasa excavation report informs that 'Period IV saw the use of varied material for beadmaking. The succeeding Pd.V saw the climax' of beadmaking at Nevasa (Sankalia et al. 1960:368). ' Significant from our point of view is the fact that out of a total of 1655 beads recovered from Pds. III, IV, V, VI at Nevasa, Pd.V yields the most quantity :708 beads This is much greater than the 171 beads recovered from Pd.IV (Table 6). The relatively higher number of beads in Pd.V (the RPW & Amphora phase) suggest an expansion of the beadmaking industry. The Nevasa report documents 15 material categories of beads in Pd.IV-V. Pd. V yields greater quantity of beads for 8 categories (agate, amethyst, coral, faience, glass, opal, shell, terracotta) as contrasted with greater quantity of beads for 6 categories (bloodstone, chalcedony, crystal, jasper, lapis, steatite) in Pd.IV. 2 categories (carnelian, soapstone) reveal equal quantities of beads in Pd. IV and V. (Table 6). The distribution figures given in Table 6 also make certain trends clear. In Pd.V, glass, faience, shell and terracotta register the bulk of the increase with an aggregate of 630 beads. These 4 categories make up 89% of the beads recovered from Pd. V levels. The dominance of these categories points to a shift in the use of material for beadmaking. The Nevasa report informs: 'The Indo-Roman or Period V

Table 5. Comparative quantities of finished material retrieved from manufacturing contexts in Nevasa Pds. IV \ V. Bead/Bangle Making Glass Working Shell Working Ivory Working Stone, Faience, Clay RPW/ Amphora Phase 475 223 518 48 (Pd. V) BRW Phase 139 (Pd. M 332 60 4 Table: 5. Comparitive quantities of finished material retrieved from manufacturing contexts in Nevasa Pd. IV/V 274

Table 6. Material-wise distribution of beads in Nevasa Pds. IV \ V. Material Pd. IV Pd. V Agate 3 18 Amethyst 1 3 Coral 2 20 Pd. Faience 7 132 V + Glass 32 223 Opal 0 '2' Shell 29 113 Terracotta 39 162 Bloodstone 2 0 Chalcedony 1 0 Pd. Crystal S 1 IV Jasper 13 S + Lapis 2 1 Steatite 5 Pd. Camelian 26 26 IV V Soapstone 2 2 TOTAL 171 708 275

Table 7. Colour-wise distribution of glass beads in Nevasa Pds. IV \ V. Colours of Glass Pd.IV Pd.V BLACK 1 22 GREEN S 61 RED 13 33 PURPLE 0 1. GREY 0 2 BLUE 4 .51 YELLOW 7 41 WHITE 0 3 GOLD FOIL 2 1 YELLOW MATRIX 0 8 00 Total 32 223 276

277 saw the climax of the beadmaking industry at Nevasa. Here we have a different picture from that of Period IV. The natural material like semi-precious stones fall to the background and artificial material like faience and glass comes to the forefront (Sankalia et al. 1960: 368-369). Within the overall context of bead/bangle making, what are the comparative numerical trends for semi-precious stone, glass, shell and ivory working observed in Nevasa Pds. IV-V ? Semi-precious stone with faience and clay beads / pendants /bangles In the aggregate more semi-precious stone and associated material has been recovered from Pd V: a total of 475 against 139 objects for Pd IV (Table 5). Glass: Evidence of glassworking in Nevasa Pds. IV-V is furnished by glass. slag retrieved from the site together with glass beads/bangles in process of manufacture (Sankalia et al. 1960:367-369,453). We have pointed out that greater production of glass products in Pd. V is indicated by the considerably higher quantity of glass beads recovered from this phase - 223 nos. - relative to 32 nos. in Pd.IV (Table 5). The trend towards greater production of glass products in Pd.V is indicated in the internal distribution of various kinds of glass beads. Table 7 shows the distribution of glass beads across Pds. IV-V in terms of glass-colour The distribution reveals larger number of beads in Pd.V for 9 out of the 10 categories, the exception being gold-foil beads which are more in Pd.IV. The spurt in the yield of glass beads in Pd. V is particularly evident in the comparative quantities for the following colours of beads across the Pds. IV-V divide: black (22 > 1), green (61 > 5), red (33 > 13), blue (51 > 4) and yellow (41 > 7). Shell: The existence of a local shell industry at Nevasa is revealed by the presence of cut shell pieces, unworked shells and shell bangles/beads in process of manufacture in Pds. IV-V (Sankalia et al. 1960:361, 368, 458-465, 539-549). The shell used as raw material at Nevasa comprised the freshwater, brackish water. marine and terrestrial varieties (Sankalia et al. 1960:540). The crafting of all varieties of molluscan shells in the bead/bangle industry of Early Historic Nevasa suggests that the settlement was a major centre of shell working. The comparative figures for crafted shell products (bangles, beads, rings, ear studs, whistles) show a much higher aggregate for Pd.V: 518 against 60 in Pd.IV (Sankalia et al. 1960:346,459; Table 5). The higher figures for Pd. V is also evident in the internal distribution of shell bangles which comprise 95% of the crafted shell products.

278 Ivory Carving: The existence of a flourishing ivory carving industry at Early Historic Nevasa is revealed by the waste discs of ivory left after cutting out bangles and rings. Ivory rods with outlines of bangles incised upon them have also been found (Sankalia et al. 1960:466). f The waste material from ivory carving is confined to Pd.V The absence of ivory discards in Pd.IV suggests that the industry may not have existed in this period or may have been at a nascent stage. In any case, it is clear from the available evidence that ivory carving was flourishing in Pd.V. In terms of aggregate yields, the 48 ivory items recovered from Pd.V are far more than the 4 items from Pd.IV (Sankalia et al. 1960: 465-469, Table 5). The review of Nevasan craft-industries of the Early Historic period shows greater quantity of finished products recovered consistently from Pd. V levels. (Table 5). Since the Pd.IV-V phases at Nevasa can be equated with the BRWRPW & Amphora seriation it follows that the quantities of finished products recovered from the context of Nevasan industrial activity are consistently more in the RPW & Amphora levels. The higher amounts of export-commodities in Pd.V need to be seen in conjunction with other shifts observed across the Pd.IV-V or the BRW-RPW & Amphora divide. In this regard it is posited that the connection observed between appearance of Mediterranean amphorae (Roman trade contact) and improvement in the quality of habitations (beneficient impact of Mediterranean trade) is strengthened by the evidence of increased production of export-commodities in Pd.V. The conspicuous rise in production-levels of craft-goods must have been, inter alia, a 'response' to the demand generated by newly opened markets in the Mediterranean: That Pd.V Nevasa was supplying its products to the Mediterranean is evident in the fact that (a) all Nevasan products are mentioned in textual sources as exports to the Roman Empire (b) Nevasa was best situated to take advantage of the major trade routes connecting the western Deccan to the big ports of Kalliena, Suppara and Barygaza and (c) the occurrence of Mediterranean amphorae in all Pd V layers reveals that Nevasan-Roman commercial interaction was regular and enduring. Is. evidence for rise in export-commodity production at the point of BRWRPW & Amphora shift observed in the five representative sites? Brahmapuri/Kolhapur: Evidence of semi-precious stone and glass beadmaking has come to light in the Early Historic (Satavahana/Late Satavahana) and Medieval (Bahmani) levels at Brahmapuri (Sankalia and Dikshit 1952:87-121, 143-152) Specifically, the material evidence comprises 'large number' of crystal

279 nodules, a fragmentary bead mould and 'much glass slag, and unfinished beads in various stages of manufacture' (Sankalia and Dikshit 1952:90,98,132). Out of 'more than 1000' beads recovered from all periods, glass beads are 694 in number, followed by terracotta (328), semi-precious stone (87) and faience (42) (Sankalia and Dikshit 1952:87). The Brahmapuri excavation report does not provide precise information on the period-wise distribution of beads. However, the report makes it clear that glass beads recovered from the Satavahana levels 'are comparatively large in size and show a greater variety of shapes than those from the Bahmani layers' (Sankalia and Dikshit 1952:99). The report also indicates that beadmaking in the Late Satavahana phase registered a decline. Occurrence of beads for 6 material categories is mentioned for the Late Satavahana levels as against 14 categories for the Satavahana levels (Sankalia and Dikshit 1952:87-121). In particular we are sure about the decline in the use of faience for the report informs '...faience fell into disuse after the Satavahana period, as comparatively fewer specimens have been noticed in the Late Satavahana layers' (Sankalia and Dikshit 1952:92). Paunar No quantified figures are available for semi-precious stone and glass beads from the BRW and RPW levels at Paunar. However, the observation of the excavators indicate that production levels progressively increased from Pd.IIA through Pd. III at Paunar. To quote from their report:- 'The distribution shows that no beads could be had from Pd. I. The beadmaking activity seems to have increased in subsequent periods, the largest collection belonging to horizons of Pd. III which may be the period of maximum prosperity in the history of Paunar. There is a decline not only in the number of beads but in the range of materials used for beads in the subsequent period' (Deo and Dhavalikar 1968: 78). Nagara Early Historic Nagara ( Pds.I, II, III ) has revealed evidence of flourishing shell (chank) and glass export-commodity production. The evidence for the shell industry is observed in the waste products of manufacture such as 'slices of chanks and their stems' (Mehta 1968:127). The evidence of chank working was found in all three periods. In contrast, evidence of glass manufacture in the form of slag pieces came to light only in Period III (Mehta 1968:135). Apart from chank and glass, the Early Historic Pds. II and III showed evidence of iron manufacture in the form of slag remains (Mehta 1968:164). However, the quantitative data on iron

280 objects from the site is not enough to make a comparison between the Pd I+II (BRW) levels and Pd.III (RPW/Amphora) levels (Mehta 1968:165-169). A numerical comparison of chank products (bangles, rings, beads) and glass objects recovered from Pds. I+II and Pd.III shows much higher quantity of crafted material in the Pd.III or RPW & Amphora phase (Table 8). Bhokardan The Early Historic site of Bhokardan reveals evidence of semiprecious stone, shell and ivory crafting industries. Remains of semi-precious stone working were observed in the finds of 'nodules of crystal, carnelian and agate, scores of unfinished beads and bead-moulds...' (Deo and Gupte 1974:119). The shell working industry at Bhokardan seems to have been quite specialised as attested by the 'very delicate work of metal rivetting' done on shell bangles (Deo and Gupte 1974:215). The evidence of the shell industry at this site also comes from scores of waste pieces of marine shell columelae, small perforated shells and a large number of shells as also unfinished beads and bangles...' (Deo and Gupte 1974:136). With regard to the relative quantities of beads found in Early Historic phases at Bhokardan (Pds.Indian Antiquary, IB, II) the report is clear that 'the horizons of Period IB were found to have been richer in the yield of beads' (Deo and Gupte 1974:119). Significantly, the appearance of material indicators of Mediterranean trade such as the amphorae and bullae have been recorded from Pd.IB. This period also reveals a shift in quality of habitational structures from mud-walled to burnt-brick-walled The material-wise distribution of beads across the BRW (Pd.Indian Antiquary) and RPW & Amphora (Pd.IB) phases shown in Table 9 reveals higher quantity of beads. for every material category, thus providing strong corroboration for the increase reflected in the overall figures. The greater volume of beads recovered from Pd.IB in relation to Pd.Indian Antiquary points to an increase in industrial output in the former phase. It is also seen that quantity of beads recovered from Pd.II remained substantial and comparable with Pd.IB quantity The rate of bead production in Pd.II did not seem to slacken though we notice a deterioration in structural activity in the 'post-amphora' Pd.II phase. The higher amounts of ivory and shell products in Pd.IB relative to Pd.Indian Antiquary also indicates greater volume of production of these export-commodities in the RPW & Amphora phase (Table 8). Dhatva Two cultural phases came to light in the excavations at Dhatva Pd.I Dhatva was a Chalcolithic settlement from 1500 B.C. to 1000 B.C. (Mehta and Chowdhary 1975:9). Pd.II Dhatva was 'occupied by a people knowing techniques of smelting iron' from 500 B.C. to 200 A.D. (Mehta and Chowdhary 1975:4, 9).

Table 8 Comparitive quantities of finished material retrieved from Industries at Brahmapuri, Paunar, Nagara, Bhokardan and Dhatva. Higher production indicated in excavation reports though quantified figures unavailable Ref: Paunar (Deo and Dhavalikar 1967: 77-85); Brahmapuri (Sankalla and Dikshit 1952: 87-121); Nagara (Mehta et al 1968: 127-135, 146-148); Bhokardan (Deo and Gupte 1974: 118-142, 186-196, 197-201); Dhatva (Mehta and Chowdhury 1975: 48-56) RPW/ AMPHORA PHASE GLASS WORKING SHELL WORKING IRON MAKING IVORY WORKING Brahmapuri Paunar Bhokardan Brahmapuri Paunar Nagara Bhokardan, Nagara Bhokardan Dhatva Bhokardan SEMIPRECIOUS STONE WORKING 255 BRW PHASE 16 33 83 68 88 31 26 1301 757 136 45 281

Table 9. Material-wise distribution of beads at Bhokardan Material Agate 00 Pd. I A Pd. I B Pd. II 1 8 20 Amethyst 0 0 1 Calcite 0 1 1 Carnelian 2 20 20 Coral 0 2 n Crystal 0 13 26 Faience 9 208 92 Gamet 2 0 0 Jasper 1 S 9 Lapis 0 2 1 Opal 0 2 7 Glass 3 67 243 17 327 425 282

283 The Dhatva excavation 'revealed evidence of the (iron) industry in the form of iron metal objects, lumps of iron metallurgical tap slag and chunks of iron ore in layers 3, 2, 1 and on the surface of the mound. Layer 3 was the earliest level of the Early Historic community at the site. It is therefore possible to observe that the iron smelting work was started at Dhatva as soon as the Early Historic community settled there' (Mehta and Chowdhary 1975:48). Though there are no numerical figures for comparison available for iron production in the different levels, the excavation report mentions that 'more' number of iron objects and larger quantity lumps of slag and ironchunks were recovered from layers 2 and 1 than from layer 3 (Mehta and Chowdhary 1975:48-49). It is precisely in these upper levels that indicators of Mediterranean contact appear in the form of amphorae and brick houses are constructed To recapitulate, the sharp correlation in the Nevasa stratigraphy between appearance of indicators of Mediterranean contact, increase and improvement in building activity and increase in yield of finished export-commodities from manufacturing contexts reflects, inter alia, the beneficient impact of long distance Roman sea trade on the community of Early Historic Nevasans. That the same pattern observed at Nevasa is explicated across a number of settlements in GujaratMaharashtra strongly indicates the rise in 'prosperity' as a result of overseas Mediterranean commerce - of the market-towns of western India (Table 8). Of course, the generalisations arrived here do not negate the possibility of higher productions indicated in the archaeological record being due to a concommitant rise in domestic consumption. To this extent, the conclusions arrived in this study remain 'open-ended', resting primarily on the argument that the serially observed link between higher production figures of export-commodities and improved living conditions at the moment of appearance of Roman artefacts is too proximate and widespread to be ignored