The cultural life of the Pre-Pallava Period

Sources for the study of the cultural history of Tondaimandalam region, prior to the rise of the Pallavas is available in the form of literature like the works of the Sangam age as well as foreign accounts, artifacts brought to light through excavations and early Tamil–Brahmi inscriptions. Sculptural evidence in region is yet to manifest and they begin to appear only from the time of the Pallavas. However, at the same time much sculptural remains of pre-Pallava period can be found in the neighboring regions of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka during the reign of Satavahanas, Ikshvakus, Kadamba, Vishnukundin and Salankayana. Similar evidences can also be found from far off places in the northern parts of India, during the reign of various major dynasties like Maurya, Sunga, Kushana, Gupta and Vakataka.

It is known that during the Sangam age, the common people built their house in a simple manner using mud, mortar and brick. Burnt brick, known as suduman is also known. The roof of the house is usually thatched, covered with either grass or Coconut or Palmyra leaves. The poor used to live in huts with thatched roof made of straws. However, literature like Ahananuru, Pattinappalai, Perumbanarruppadai, Maduraikkanchi, Nedunalvadi and Manimekalai, refers to the rich and affluent class living in storied houses having high entrances, fronted by portico, piazza and open terraces at the top^[1]. There is also reference to painters engaged in decorating the walls of the houses belonging to the affluent class, with different ornamental colorful patterns^[2]. Ahananuru further refers to the luxurious lifestyle of the rich, were they kept the lights burning throughout the night, slept on soft mattresses and employed watchmen to keep vigil^[3].

People used to drape their body using clothes made of different materials like cotton, silk^[4] and even garments made of leaves bedecked with flowers^[5]. It seems that the dress made of leaves and flowers was especially worn by girls before marriage^[6]. The girls of the Neital region decorated their leaf garment called talai13 with flowers of the Punnai on festivity times^[7]. The garments in silk and cotton were variously called in literature as adai, aruvai, tugil and kalingam15. The dress consists of two parts -an upper and a lower garment and is usually unstitched^[8]. Normally men leave their upper part of the body bare and exceptionally use an upper-cloth. The lower garment is of single piece and is draped around the waist in the form of a dhoti. The length of the lower garment varies and is often related to the kind of profession the person is engaged. The manual workers of both the sexes seem to be content with a loin cloth alone. Like men, women also used to wear a single piece of garment from waist to the ankles. Sari seems to be not in vogue in this period. The upper part of the body seems to be left bare and there is no reference to breast-band in the Sangam classics^[9]. However, both men and women of upper-class or richer families worn a kind of upper cloth known as oliyal18 and Ahananuru seems to refer to a kind of kucha-bandha^[10]. To hold the lower garment a waist-band known as kachchu or vambu was worn by both the sexes, and normally it may be a simple cloth tied around the waist. The courtesans used to wear a fine piece of transparent muslin from waist to the middle of the thigh^[11]. From Puram^[12] literature, it is known that warriors wear a special kind of clothing. Their lower garment is of white color having floral designs and a blue cloth is fastened around the waist. Armour protecting the chest made of tiger’s skin is also worn by them. An interesting reference to the dress of the mlechhas is also found in the literature, where they are described as wearing close fitting tunics (meippai)^[13]. From this, it can be hinted that the Tamils of the Sangam age perhaps also learnt the art of stitching the garments under the influence of the Yavanas and there were also tailors, who repaired torn cloths and stitched new ones^[14]. Sandals made of leather known as adi pudaiyaranam were especially worn by the hunters, soldiers and cowherds^[15]. The farmers seem to have covered their heads with a kind of cap made of Palmyra leaves^[16] to protect them from sunlight. Apart from literature, the finds from excavations also supports the fact that the people of this age are well versed in the art of weaving and dying the cloth with various colors. The availability of terracotta spindle whorls for spinning cotton and structures identified as dying-vats for coloring cloths is indicative of this fact. Indeed in Purananuru, there is a reference to women spinning cotton^[17].

Men and women tend to their hair in different styles. Men generally allowed the hair to grow to its full length or had their front above the forehead cleared of hair and knotted it at their back known as kudumi in Tamil. If the hair is allowed to grow at full length, then it is gathered together at the top of the head or tied into knot at one side of the head. For tying purpose the rich class often used colored strings of silk with beaded decorations of blue color and allowed the ends of the string to hang as tassels^[18]. Those of the Brahmin community seem to have only a tuft of hair at the top of their head and shaved the rest. Women wear their hair in variety of styles involving buns, top-knots, curly strands, parting of hair, plaiting etc., as known from literatures such as Nedunalvadi, Aham, Sirupanarruppadai, Porunararruppadai and Kalittogai^[19]. For example Ahananuru^[20], Kurinchippattu^[21], Kalittogai^[22] and Narrinai^[23] mentions that women used to have their hairs arranged in five plaits. Kanakasabhai describes this style of braiding the hair as mentioned in Kalittogai in the following words: “They divided it into five parts, twisted or plaited each part separately, and tied up the five tufts allowing the ends to hang down the back of the head in a manner they considered most graceful. They seem to have devoted much care on the training of the hair, for it is stated that it was a custom for young girls to crop their hairs with scissors, so close as to expose the skin of the head leaving five small tufts far apart from each other: and as the girls grew up, they gradually extended the tufts till they covered the whole surface of the head.”^[24] He further says that such a custom of dividing the hair into five parts still exists among the Burmese.

The king and his officers wore special head-dress, which was mostly a turban decorated with jewels and flowers. Each king has their own totemic flower, which they proudly worn. The judicial officers wore turban, which was either white or red in color^[25].

Both men and women used to bedeck their ears, neck, arms, wrist, waist and ankles with various ornaments made of gold, precious gems and pearls. Even there is reference to an ornament made of sandalwood^[26]. The poor among them used to wear ornaments of shell and terracotta. The ornaments are known by various names in the literature^[27] such as sentiru or deiva utti–a floral ornament for the head, vayantakam–a pendant for the forehead, kulai–ear ornament, todu–ear-ring, kasus–necklace formed of circular medallions, todi–an ornament for the shoulder, kadakam–an ornament for the forearm, valai–wristlet or bangles, modiram–rings for fingers on the palm as well as toes, mekalai and muttarai for the waist, silambu -anklet. Especially ear ornaments, beaded necklaces and bangles made of terracotta, conch and shell were popular as can be seen from the large number of artifacts excavated from various sites. Necklaces and even bangles made of semi-precious stone beads seems to be also popular, as known from the availability of large number of such beads of various shapes, sizes and designs found from the excavation of various early historical sites. Special factory sites for the manufacture of beads are also known from sites such as Kodumanal. As usual, usage of ornaments and cosmetics to decor the body is more fashionable among the women than men. Of the various neck ornaments, the literature mention a peculiar type known in the literature as tali, worn especially by women and children of both the sexes, which was believed to protect the wearer from all kinds of evil spirits. Many types of tali are mentioned such as Pulippal-tali^[28] (made of Tiger’s teeth), Aimpadai-tali^[29] (consists of five emblems of Vishnu viz., the conch, the discus, the mace, the bow and the sword), Amai-tali (tortoise shaped) and Tali-kolundu (in the form of bunch of flower buds). However, none of the tali is mentioned in association with the marriage ritual and they are referred to just as an ornament worn by women or as an amulet^[30]. The children worn diminutive anklets around their ankles called kinkini.

Among women it is more in vogue to decor their plaited hair and body with flowers. Those flowers worn on the head were called kanni and on the shoulders as tar. Even men, especially those of the warrior class used to wear flowers indicative of their rank or position. Indeed the flower forms one of the royal insignia of the kings, and the type of flower used by different clans or tribe vary. Kurinchipattu mentions 101 varieties of flowers^[31]. Kaveripumpattinam and Madurai are known in literature as famous for the flower bazars, where various kinds of flowers were sold in the form of loose flowers, garlands and bouquets^[32].

Apart from decorating the body with ornaments and flowers, both men and women are fond of applying perfume, sandal paste, turmeric and coloring the body with various powders of red or yellow color^[33]. The Aham literature^[34] refers to women, painting artistic and floral designs using aromatic paste called toyyil on their breasts and shoulders. Similarly, men used to smear sandal paste on the chest^[35]. The custom of applying red hued tilagam on the forehead is also prevalent^[36]. Painting eye-lashes with black pigment is especially popular among girls^[37]. The palms of the feet were also decorated with red paste^[38]. Silappadikaram describes Madhavi as elaborately dressed, ornamented and perfumed. It describes about the perfume applied to her tresses as made out of a mixture of ten astringents, five odors and 32 varieties of odoriferous plants^[39].

Sangam literature also gives glimpses into the various kinds of weapons used during warfare. Indeed the entire Puram literature was composed in praise of the military achievements and exploits of their respective patron kings. They used various kinds of swords, lances, bow and arrow. It also refers to highway robbers armed with daggers, knives and chisels.^[40]

Pastime activities like playing dice, cock-fight, bull-fight, goat fighting, wrestling, etc., are also mentioned in the Sangam literature. Booths built specially for the purpose of gambling also finds mention in Aham^[41]. Mock fights among equestrians and charioteers were also popular. While the above mentioned pastimes were popular among men, women engaged in more pacific type of pastimes such as Ammanai, Kalangu^[42] (playing with seeds of dried beans), Usal (swinging), Orai, playing with trained parrots^[43], dolls, etc. Children engaged in different pastime activities like playing with rattle, dolls, toy-carts, building castles in sand, imitating kitchen work, tending pet parrots and chatting with them, playing in water, playing with marbles^[44], etc.

The Sangam literature refers to variety of dances such as Kuravai, Tunangai, Tholi and Amalai. Tirumurugarruppadai and Patirruppattu speak of Tunangai and the Kuravai as played by both men and women. Particular mention is made of the Amalai form as a dance of victory^[45]. The Arangerrukadai of the epic Silappadikram gives much information regarding performing arts like dance, drama and music, while elaborating on the circumstances under which the heroine of the epic Madhavi’s maiden dance performance was given. Both dance and drama, which are interrelated to each other is known by the term kuttu. It also describes a kind of dance performed by acrobats such as Kalaikkuttu^[46] and Ariyakkuttar^[47]. The commentary of Adiyarkkunallar to Silappadikaram mentions various components of good acting^[48]. It seems that puppet shows were also known by this age^[49]. Both vocal and instrumental music was practiced and was known by the term Isai. A number of stringed, percussion and wind musical instruments are known from Sangam classics. The Ahananuru^[50] refers to a number of musical instruments like Yal (lute), Kulal (flute), Tannumai (drum), Mulavu (a kind of lute), vinai, etc. Reference is found in Silappadikaram of the various musical instruments sold in the shops of Madurai^[51].

Fine arts like painting and making of sculptures from stucco and clay was also well developed in this age. Painting was called Oviyakkalai. Nedunalvadai mentions about the existence of array of figures, flowers and creepers drawn on the specially made smooth walls. An interesting reference to an art gallery is mentioned in Paripadal, where figures of Rati, Rama, Indra as cat, Ahalya and Gautama were depicted. Ahananuru refers to a kind of painting called suvarpavai, which seem to be the same as murals. Narrinai and Maduraikkanchi also refers to painted human figures, which gives the appearance of a real human being^[52]. Silappadikaram^[53] mentions a treatise on painting called Oviya Nul, which deals with different styles of painting. The artists who were professing painting were called Oviyar and those on making figures out of stucco are called Mannittaral. Maduraikkanchi and Manimekalai refer to variety of paintings drawn on canvas as well as walls of temples, monasteries and private houses ranging from figures of gods to the painting of natural scenes^[54].

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

M. Arokiaswami, The Classical Age of the Tamils, Madras, Reprint 2011, p. 91.

[2]:

Manimekalai, Chapter III, Malarvanam pukka kadai, ll. 127–131.

[3]:

C.E. Ramachandran, Ahananuru in its historical setting, Madras, 1974, pp. 83–85.

[4]:

Aham 236

[5]:

Narrinai stanza 123; Aham no. 20, refers to a lower garment especially worn by women made of the broad leaves of water flowers.

[6]:

Aham no. 7

[7]:

Aham no. 70

[8]:

Nedunalvadi, 357; Puram no. 189.

[9]:

K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, Sangam Literature: Its Cults and Cultures, Madras, 1972, p. 62.

[10]:

Aham no. 361.

[11]:

Silappadikaram chapter VI, kadaladukadai, l. 88

[12]:

Puram no. 274.

[13]:

Nilakanta Sastri, op. cit.

[14]:

Puram no. 136.

[15]:

Perumbanarruppadai 169; Pattinappalai 265; Aham nos. 34, 101, 129.

[16]:

Aham no. 191.

[17]:

Puram no. 125.

[18]:

Ibid., no. 150

[19]:

Nilakanta Sastri, op.cit. p. 63.

[20]:

Aham,. nos. 48, 117, 177

[21]:

Kurinchippattu, 1. 139

[22]:

Kalittogai, stanzas 32, 55

[23]:

Narrinai, stanzas 96 and 198

[24]:

The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago, Madras, Reprint 1979, p. 118.

[25]:

N. Subrahmanyam, Sangam Polity, Udumalpet, 1996, p. 333.

[26]:

Aham no. 13.

[27]:

Silappadikaram chapter XX, valakkuraikadai, ll. 67 -69; Kalittogai 79, 85; Tirumurugarruppadai 23, Puram 150, 21

[28]:

Aham no. 7; Puram no. 374

[29]:

Puram no. 77

[30]:

C.J. Jayadeva, “Literary and Ethnographic References to the Tali and the Tali rite”, in Transactions of the Archaeological Society of South India, 1959–60, pp. 43–56

[31]:

Kurinchippattu 61 to 97

[32]:

Subramhmanyam, op.cit., pp. 335–336

[33]:

Silappadikaram, l. 69.

[34]:

Aham nos. 177, 239, 389; Kuruntogai 276: 2–4; Kalittogai 143: 31–34; Narrinai, stanza 225

[35]:

Narrinai 168, 250, 314; Aham no. 48, 354

[36]:

Aham no. 389, Paripadal no. 11

[37]:

Narrinai, stanzas 271, 284, 308, 316 and 370; Silappadikaram chapter IV, Antimalaissiraippuccevkadai, l. 53; chapter VI, kadaladukadai, l. 69; chapter VIII, Venirkadai, l. 29; Kalittogai 76

[38]:

Aham no. 389

[39]:

Silappadikaram VI, kadaladukadai, 76 to 82

[40]:

Maduraikkanchi 631–50; Kalittogai stanza 4

[41]:

Aham no. 377

[42]:

Aham nos. 17, 49, 334

[43]:

Ibid. nos. 49, 369

[44]:

Narrinai stanza 3

[45]:

Aham no. 142

[46]:

A delicate dance posing on the top of a tall bamboo stick (Subrahmanyam, op.cit., p. 364)

[47]:

Dance performed on a tight rope tied between two fixed bamboos (Silappadikaram chapter III, Arangerrukadai, ll. 12–25)

[48]:

Silappadikaram chapter III, Arangerrukadai

[49]:

Aham no. 98

[50]:

Ibid., nos. 74, 118, 301, 331, 336

[51]:

Arokiaswamy, op.cit., p. 119

[52]:

K.V. Soundara Rajan, The Art of South India –Tamil Nadu and Kerala, Delhi, 1978, p. 22.

[53]:

Silappadikaram, Chapter VIII, Venirkadai, ll. 23–26

[54]:

Maduraikkanchi 485 and 516; Manimekalai, Chapter III, Malarvanam pukka kadai, ll. 127–131 and Chapter XXVIII, Kaccimanakar pukka kadai, l. 67