Vaishnavism during the Pallava period

[Full title: Religious Beliefs (during the Pallava period): Vaishnavism]

From the copper-plate charters^[1], it is known that the early Pallava kings preferred to call themselves as paramabhagavata [paramabhagavatah] and there existed temples dedicated to Vishnu, which were probably built of perishable materials and could not withstand the vagaries of time. The contemporary alvars also sang in praise of Vishnu in three postures, viz., ninran, irundan and kidandan. The earliest extant architectural edifice, which can be definitely regarded as exclusively dedicated to Vishnu is the Mahendravishnu-griha at Mahendravadi (Figure 53), as can be attested by the inscription^[2] engraved in the cave temple. It records that the king had excavated a spacious temple of Murari called Mahendra-Vishnugriha on the bank of Mahendratataka in Mahendrapuri. Similarly the fragmentary inscription in the northern cave temple (no. 01) at Mamandur (first quarter of 7^th century A.D.)^[3] points to the possibility of its dedication to a form of Vishnu, who is described as sahsradhara-sampurna-megha-syama (one who is in the form of cloud pregnant with thousand torrents). It is known from other cave temples, like at Mandagapattu, Pallavaram, Cave no. 02 at Mamandur and Kuranganilmuttam that, even though the worship of Vishnu was patronized by Mahendravarman I, importance was given to Siva by placing his shrine cell at the centre, flanked by the shrines dedicated to Brahma and Vishnu. Perhaps, it can be regarded as the beginning of Trimurti concept of worship. This tradition seems to have continued in the time of his successor Narasimhavarman I, in the Trimurti cave temple at Mamallapuram. However, his period witnessed an inclination towards the Vaishnava cult and the Chitrur copper-plate grant of Nripatungavarman (circa 875 A.D.)^[4], refers to Narasimhavarman I Mamalla as the builder of an abode for reclining Vishnu (sayyagriha) out of stones (asmabhih) in the midst of the ocean for Vishnu. This description suits perfectly with the abhicharika form of Vishnu (fig. 54), lying near the shore at Mamallapuram, which was subsequently placed between the Saivite shrines, known as Kshatriyasimhesvara and Rajasimhesvara during the reign of Rajasimha. The image was originally four-armed, but the upper right limb is broken and is seen lying directly on the rock, modeled as a platform without the usual serpent. Dandin, the court poet of Narasimhavarman I in his work Avantisundari^[5] mentions that the broken arm of an image of Sthalasayana Vishnu was restored by an artisan named Lalitalaya. It is most likely that the image referred was the same as the present one and even now the image has a broken arm.

If the reason behind the creation of an abhicharika form of Vishnu near the shore is probed, then it becomes clear that Mamalla got influenced by the Vaikhanasagama. It states that this form of Vishnu is especially intended for kings overcoming enemies (rajnam satru jayarthicha abhicharikam) and should always be sculptured and worshiped in forts formed of forest, water, in another’s kingdom or in the enemy’s direction (vana-giri-jala durge rashtrante satrudikshu dinmukhe cha abhicharika sthanam). From the point of the characteristic features, the form at Mamallapuram could be classified as the adhama class of abhicharika (sarpadeham vina samasthala sayanam adhamam). It is well known that the period of reign of Mahendravarman I and his son, Narsimhavarman I Mamalla witnessed much warfare between the Pallavas and the Western Chalukyas and most probably with a view to gain victory over the Chalukyas, so Mamalla caused to carve such an image of Vishnu. The early alvar saint Bhudatt-alvar^[6] as well as Tirumangai-alvar^[7] composed hymns about certain Sthalasayana god at Mamallapuram, which could be identified with this image.

Apart from the abhicharika type, depiction of Vishnu as Yogasayanamurti can also be found in the Mahishasuramardini cave temple at Mamallapuram and in the Ranganatha cave temple at Singavaram, both of the time of Narasimahavarman I. The reclining figure of Vishnu at Mamallapuram (fig. 55) is accompanied by His consort Bhudevi and ayudhapurushas viz., Panchajanya, Kaumodaki, Sudarsana and Nandaka. Additionally at Singavaram images of Brahma seated on the lotus issuing from the navel of Vishnu, Garuda and Narada are also seen. Along with the sayana forms, sthanaka form of Vishnu was also worshipped in this period. The earliest such form can be found in the Trimurti cave temple at Mamallapuram (fig. 56) of the reign of Narasimhavarman I. For the first time, seated form of Vishnu, known as Bhogasanamurti can be seen in the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram of the time of Rajasimha, where he is shown seated along with his consorts Sridevi and Bhudevi (fig. 57).

From the alvar hymns it is learnt that the first three alvars Poygai, Pey and Pudam of circa 5^th –6^th centuries A.D., know only seven of the Vishnu’s ten incarnations viz., Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Rama, Balarama and Krishna^[8]. Among them, Narasimha was depicted much earlier as can be seen carved along with other deities in the sati panels (fig. 58) found from Munnur, Tenneri, Uttaramerur, Ukkal and Brahmadesam, dated variously from 3^rd –4^th to 9^th centuries A.D.^[9] Similar panel from Manimangalam depicts additionally an image of Srivatsa by the side of Narasimha, thus, making it the earliest representation of the concept of Lakshmi-Narasimha. The Singaperumal-koil of the reign of Narsimhavarman I can be regarded as the only temple of this period exclusively dedicated to Narasimha, even though the sanctum now enshrines a modern stucco image. Vishnu as Bhu-Varaha and Trivikrama (fig. 59 and 60) can be seen depicted for the first time in the Varaha-mandapa at Mamallapuram, executed during the reign of the same king. The Vaikhanasagama gives three types of Varaha forms viz., Adivaraha, Pralayavaraha and Yajnavaraha. Of these, the one sculptured in the Varaha cave temple matches very well with the description given in the text regarding the Adivaraha form. In the Adivaraha cave temple alias Paramesvara-mahavaraha-vishnu-griham, a seated bas-relief stucco image of Bhu-Varaha can be seen placed in the sanctum. Even though the image is of modern origin, it could be a replica of the ancient one and shows the lingering tradition of installing stucco images in the garbhagriha for worship. This image as per the agamas can be identified as representing Pralayavaraha and is described in the text as accompanied by Bhudevi in seated posture.

That the people were aware of the ten avatars of Vishnu is also known from an inscription^[10] engraved in the same temple. Interestingly among the list of ten incarnations, the name of Krishna is omitted and instead mentions Balarama and even includes Buddha. It is probable that the idea of including Buddha prelocated from the northern parts of India, where during the Gupta period (4^th to 6^th century A.D.) such a concept became popular. However, in the hymns of alvars, Buddha is excluded from the list. This may show that the masses still could not accept Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu. It is interesting to note, that even though epigraphical references^[11] to Rama in the inscriptions of Narasimhavarman I, Paramesvaravarman I and Narasimhavarman II (7^th –8^th century A.D.) are found, where the king is compared with Rama in valour and the hymns rendered by early alvars^[12] are replete with stories drawn from Ramayana, sculptural representation of the same can be found only in the time of Nandivarman II, in the Vaikunthaperumal temple at Kanchipuram. This shows that even though Rama as an avatar of Vishnu was known in this period, yet His worship has not yet attained cultic proportions. For the first time in the Pallava art sculptural depiction of GarudharudhaVishnu (fig. 61) can be seen in the Saiva temples viz., Arjuna and Dharmaraja rathas at Mamallapuram. In the later Harihara form can also be seen. Such a portrayal may speak of the religious amicability of the age.

Various scenes related to the life of Krishna such as Govardhanadhari in the Krishnamandapam and Kaliyamardana in the Dharmaraja ratha at Mamallapuram (fig. 62) also began to appear. Even though the alvars^[13] describe Krishna as Venugopala, not much sculptural evidence of the same is found, except for the figure of a flute playing cowherd depicted at the background of the Govardhanadhari panel, who could also be identified as representing Krishna. When compared to Krishna, Balarama is represented only twice, in the Govardhanadhari panel and later on in a niche in the Vaikunthaperumal temple at Kanchipuram. Later on Krishna seems to have gained popularity as one among the five Vrisni heroes, indicative of Panchavira cult.

In spite of Saivite leanings of Rajasimha, the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram depicts images of Trivikrama, Vamana and Narasimha. The sculptural representation of the puranic narration involving Narasimha in the act of killing Hiranyakasipu (fig. 63) is the earliest known specimen in the Tamil country^[14]. A rare portrayal of the story of Samudramadhana, indicative of Kurmavatara can also be seen in this temple. Apart from these incarnations, He was also shown in His aspects as Garudharudha-Vishnu and Jalandharavadha (fig. 64). The second mentioned form can be seen popularly depicted even in the niches of other Saivite temples of the period, like the Iravatanesvara and the Piravatanesvara. However, at the same time, the growing disparity between the Saivites and Vaishnavites can also be seen for the first time here in the depiction of Varaha as a sub-ordinate deity in the Lingodbhava panel.

For the first time Vaishnavism has received tremendous boost in the time of Nandivarman II, who was described by the Vaishnava saint Tirumangai as a great devotee of Vishnu^[15]. The Kasakkudi plates (circa 754 A.D.)^[16] also describe him as the one who worships the feet of Vishnu. Alvar saints like Tirumalisai, Tirumangai and Nammalvar (of about 9^th century A.D.) mention all the ten avataras of Vishnu and interestingly the name of Buddha is excluded^[17]. Most probably the form of Trivikrama continues to receive special attention as the Kasakkudi plates^[18] of Nandivarman II begins with an invocatory verse addressed to him. The Vaikunthaperumal temple at Kanchipuram, which can be regarded as a storehouse of Vaishnavite iconography is a creation of his times. A rare combination of the seated, standing and reclining forms of Vishnu can be seen installed in its three functional tiers. The first tier enshrines the Adimurti form of Vishnu as described in the Vaikhanasagama. Here it is of the Bhogasana variety as He is shown seated on the Adisesha, along with his consort. On its outerwall a rare form of Vishnu viz., Ashtabhujasvami, can be seen. The contemporary alvars speaks of Vishnu as not only four-armed, but also as eight-armed and thousand armed one and Vishnudharmottara-purana^[19] expounds this aspect as his vyuha form. However sculptural representation of multi-headed Vishnu is absent in this period. For the first time in Pallava period sculptural representation of Rama can be found in this temple. In one of the niches He was depicted along with His three brothers, riding on a chariot and in other He is shown in the popular form as Kodandapani Rama. Further, the pillars of this temple carries on it beautiful miniature depiction of scenes from the Ramayana (fig. 65). For the first time Buddha was also depicted as an avatar of Vishnu in this temple. This shows the final assimilation of Buddha into the Vaishnavite fold. The temple also depicts the lilas of Krishna like, His killing of the demon Dhenukasura, decrowning of Kamsa, etc. It seems that the hymns of the alvars glorifying the various heroic deeds and childhood pranks of Krishna as well as the Bhagavata Purana and Mahabharata inspired both the king as well as the artists to carve these sculptures. Apart from His avatars, Vishnu was also depicted in various other forms such as Garudharudha, Jalandharavadha, Ashtabhujasvami and other anugraha forms like Rishyanugraha, Bhaktanugraha, Gajendramoksha, Brahmanugraha and Sivanugraha. The most interesting of these depictions is the Brahmanugrha and Sivanugraha. Both of these depictions hint at the sectoral strife that existed during the period of Nandivarman II, between the Saivites and Vaishnavites and the attempt made by the followers of Vishnu to regard Him as supreme to Brahma and Siva. Apart from these, minor avatars of Vishnu like Mohini and Hayagriva (fig. 66) also find rare expression in this temple. Hayagriva is primarily associated with knowledge and wisdom and is described in the Bhagavata purana^[20] and Mahabharata^[21] as the one, who rescued the Vedas stolen by the two demons Madhu and Kaitabha, whom He killed. Tirumangai alvar in his Periya Tirumoli^[22] also refers to this aspect of Vishnu. According to Vishnudharmottara-purana^[23], Hayagriva should be represented with a horse’s face and its depiction on the north wall of this temple suits the description. Vishnu in the female form of Mohini, taken in order to divert the asuras from getting a share of the amrit is also found depicted on the south wall of the antarala.

An intresting temple which gives an understanding into the strict implementation of Vaikhanasa-agama is the Sundaravaradaperumal temple at Uttaramerur, which could be dated (8^th century A.D.) to the time of Pallavamalla on the basis of inscriptional evidence^[24]. It is a three storeyed structure similar to the Vaikunthaperumal temple at Kanchipuram. A study of the main deities of each sanctum and the respective parsvadevatas throws an interesting aspect of not only Vaishnava faith, but also of fulfilling the requirement of a planned city. It is known through inscriptions that Uttaramerur was established as a chaturvedimangalam by Nandivarman II Pallavamalla around 750 A.D., and gifted it to 1200 Vedic Brahmanas of the Vaishnava tradition. The city which was planned and developed according to the Marichi-samhita of the Vaikhanasagama on a systematitized vastu grid also prescribed the installation of nine murtis in the village as it had more than 1000 Vaishnava Brahmin families^[25]. Thus, following the text the temple was built with the ground floor having the image of Sthanaka-Vishnu as the principal deity worshipped by Bhima and Parsvadevatas at the three cardinal sides -the southern niche with a standing image of Achyuta worshipped by Arjuna, the western niche has Aniruddha worshipped by Nakula and the northern one has Kalyanavarada worshipped by Sahadeva. Further, the steps leading to the niches of these parsvadevatas also have on its parapet wall images of Brighu on the south, Rati-Manmatha on the west and Sarasvati on the north. The first floor has Vaikunthanatha (Asana-Vishnu) worshipped by Dharmaraja in its central shrine with parsvadevatas like Krishna and Arjuna (Nara-narayana) in the southern niche, Yoga Narasimha in the western niche and the northern one having an image of Lakshmi-Narayana. Tirumangai-alvar describes Nara-narayana as the god, who taught dharma to the world^[26]. The second floor has in its garbhagriha the reclining image of Vishnu^[27] with the Lakshmi-Varaha form in the northern niche and Yoga-Narasimha in the western niche.

Apart from the above mentioned structural temples, Vishnu continues to receive worship in the cave temples of this period as well. Representation of Yogasayanamurti can be seen carved on a small hillock called Vinnamparai near Gingee. Similarly, standing forms can be seen in the rock-cut cell at Kilmavilangai (Villupuram district), the northern Vishnu cave temple (no. 03) at Vallam (Kanchipuram district) and in the Guhai Varadarajaperumal cave temple at Avur (Tiruvannamalai district).

During the reign of Dantivarman, Vishnu continued to receive worship as can be seen in temples dedicated to him at Kuram and Tiruvellarai. The miniature bas-relief panels adoring the adhisthana of the Pundarikaksha-perumal temple at Tiruvellarai also portray various scenes such as the killing of the bird Bakasura by Krishna (fig. 67), Kaliyamardhana and Krishna performing the kuda kuthu dance, apart from the usual Bhuvaraha and Asana-form of Vishnu. Fine examples of the prevalence of Panchavira cult in this period can be seen in the Parthasarathi temple at Tiruvellikeni and in the Venugopalasvami temple at Tiruchchhanur^[28], both of which, find mention in the hymns of the alvars. However the exact date of these sculptures is not as close examination is not possible due to ritualistic injunctions. Another two temples of this cult, which seems to be in existence in this period, though not in Pallava dominion are the Nachchiyarkoyil (Tirunaraiyur) in the Thanjavur district and the Ninra-Narayana temple at Tiruttangal (Ramanathapuram district). The five Vrsni heroes traditionally worshiped in north India are Sankarsana (Balarama), Vasudeva (Krishna), Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Samba. However, in the Tiruvellikeni temple, datable to the reign of Dantivarman^[29], Satyaki is found instead of Samba. Additionally the temples at Tiruvellikeni and Tiruttangal, enshrine the images of consorts of Krishna namely Rukmini in the former and Jambavati in the latter. R. Champakalakshmi^[30] opines that the Panchavira cult entered into this region through some early migration of Yadavas from the north, from whom the Ay chieftains of Venad and some Velir chieftains of the Sangam age claim to have descended.

The alvars of this period refer to two individual temples dedicated to the Trivikrama form of Vishnu, which can be satisfactorily identified with the Ulagalandaperumal temple at Kanchipuram and Trivikrama temple at Tirukkoyilur. However, these temples lost their original Pallava character due to subsequent additions and renovations. Of these, the former consists of an inscription of the time of Nandivarman III (circa 864 A.D.)^[31]. From the invocatory verses in the Pattattalamangalam plates of the 41^st year of Nandivarman II (circa 792 A.D.)^[32] and from the Bahur plates of Nrpatungavarman (circa 877 A.D.)^[33], graphical idea of the sayana form of Vishnu is known. During the reign of the next ruler viz., Kampavarman, worship of Vishnu continues in the well known forms like Lakshmi-Narayana, Sthanaka-Narasimha, Bhuvaraha, Vaikunthanatha as can be seen in the Lakshmi-Narayanaperumal temple at Kavantandalam^[34] and in the Chandramoulisvara temple at Brahmadesam. In the latter a fine depiction of Vali and Sugriva in combact can be seen. The temple of Ashtabhujasvamin in Kanchipuram, whose antiquity seems to go back to the Pallava period as it finds mention in the hymns of the Peyalvar, is the only example of a temple dedicated to the eight-armed form of Vishnu in this period.

A study of iconography of Vishnu and the other deities of the Vaishnava pantheon in relation to the agamas prove that the Vaikhanasagama was largely followed in this period. Inscriptional evidence also proves to the existence of the followers of Vaikhanasagama. For example, an inscription of the reign of Kampavarman from Vaikunthaperumal temple at Kanchipuram, mentions a Vaikhanasa priest by name Sridharabhattan^[35]. The major source of inspiration for the modeling of various Vaishnavite deities during this period was drawn largely from Bhagavata-purana, Vishnu-purana and several Vaishnavite Upa-puranas like Vishnudharmottara and Narasimhapurana^[36].

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Mentioned supra.

[2]:

Epigraphia Indica, vol. IV, pp. 152–153.

[3]:

K. R. Srinivasan, Cave temples of the Pallavas, New Delhi, 1964 (Reprint 1993), p. 71.

[4]:

Andhra Pradesh Government Archaeological Series, Vol. III, pp. 3 ff.

[5]:

Suranad Kunjan Pillai, Avantisundari of Acharya Dandin, Trivandrum, 1954, pp. 12– 14.

[6]:

Tiruvandadi II, v. 10

[7]:

Periya Tirumoli, II-5-1 to 10, II-6-3 and VII-9-1.

[8]:

R. Champakalakshmi, Vaishnava Iconography in the Tamil Country. New Delhi,1981, p. 82.

[9]:

R. Nagaswamy, “Sati stones from Tamilnad”, in Art and Culture of Tamilnad, Delhi, 1980, pp. 58–59.

[10]:

Matsya Kurmo Varahas-cha Narasimhas-cha Vamana[h] | Ramo Ramas-cha Ramas-cha Buddha[h] Kalki-cha te dasa ||, vide Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, 1923, no. 94.

[11]:

South Indian Inscriptions, vol. I, no. 73 and 25.

[12]:

Poygai, Tiruvandadi, 27, 35 and 59; Pudam, Tiruvandadi, 15, 25, 29 and 43; Pey, Tiruvandadi, 51, 52 and 77.

[13]:

Periya Tirumoli, IV-7-7.

[14]:

K. V. Soundara Rajan, op. cit., p. 190.

[15]:

T. V. Mahalingam, op.cit., p. 173.

[16]:

South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. I, no. 27, p. 22.

[17]:

R. Champakalakshmi, op.cit., p. 82.

[18]:

South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. II, no. 73, v. 2.

[19]:

Vishnudharmottara-purana, Part III, Chapter 47, vv. 1–18

[20]:

Bhagavata purana, Book II, Chapter 7, v. 11.

[21]:

Mahabharata, Shantiparva, Chapter 335, vv. 16–64.

[22]:

Tirumoli, V-3-2; VII-8-2.

[23]:

Vishnudharmottara-purana, chapter 80, vv. 4–6.

[24]:

South Indian Inscriptions, vol. VI, no. 356.

[25]:

R. Nagaswamy, Uttaramerur, Chennai, 2003, pp. 9–23.

[26]:

The story of Nara-narayana, the two sons of Dharma, regarded as manifestations of Vishnu and their penance in the Badarivana in the Himalayas is given in the Mahabharata, Bhagavata, Vamana, Vishnudharmottara Purana (part I, chapter 129, vv. 1–19) and in Devi Bhagavatam.

[27]:

S. R. Balasubrahmanyam, Ibid., pp. 73–75.

[28]:

K. V. Soundara Rajan, op.cit., pp. 97–98.

[29]:

Epigraphia Indica, vol. VIII, no. 29.

[30]:

R. Champakalakshmi, op.cit., p. 34.

[31]:

Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, 1895, no. 12.

[32]:

Epigraphia Indica, vol. XVIII, pp. 115 ff.

[33]:

South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. II, pp. 513–547.

[34]:

Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy 1901, no. 201.

[35]:

Ibid., 1898, no. 4.

[36]:

R. Champakalakshmi, op.cit., pp. 1–8.