Jainism during the Pallava period

[Full title: Religious Beliefs (during the Pallava period): Jainism]

Literary, epigraphical and sculptural evidence conforms to the popularity of Jainism in Tondaimandalam. The earliest reference to Jainas in this period was made by Simhanandi, the author of the Jaina literature Lokavibhaga, datable to about Saka 380 i.e. 455 A.D.^[1] The Pallankoil plates of Simhavarman III (circa 546 A.D.)^[2], gives the earliest epigraphical reference to the presence of Jaina faith during this period. It mentions that the king granted the village Amanaserkkai in Perunagara-nadu as pallichchandam to a religious teacher named Vajranandi of Paruttikunril (i.e. Tirupparuttikunram in Kanchipuram district), situated on the bank of river Vegavati at Kanchipuram for conducting worship of lord Jina. This shows the prominence attached to Jaina faith and its center at Tirupparuttikunram as early as the 6^th century A.D. A contemporary copper-plate grant of the reign of Ganga king Avinita (circa 542 A.D.) from Hosekotte^[3], records that the mother of Simhavishnu donated land to the Yapaniya-sangha of Jainas in the Gangavadi region. These two above mentioned inscriptions may indicate that, Mahendravarman I in his initial stages became a follower of this faith due to the influence of his grandparents and more particularly due to his paternal grandmother, who was a princess of the Western Ganga family. It is known from Periya Puranam that the contemporary nayanmar Tirunavakkarasu, though born in a Saivite vellala family, adopted the name Dharmasena and was known as one of the important leaders of Jainism. Later on he migrated to the Saivite fold and even managed to covert the king to Saivism. This event seems to have a negative impact on the growth of Jaina faith in this region as it lost royal patronage. Indeed literature like Tevaram298 refers even to the persecution of Jains in places such as Madurai, Tiruvarur, Tiruvorriyur, etc. Tradition records that soon after Mahendravarman I became a Saiva, he caused for the demolishing of a prosperous monastery at Pataliputra (i.e. modern Cuddalore) and built on its ruins the Siva temple at Tiruvadigai. A few Jaina images in the form of seated tirthankara noticed in this village seems to prove the fact that Tiruvadigai was once a famouns Jaina centre^[4]. However, in spite of this, Yuan-chwang^[5] the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, records in his account the popularity of Jainism in the capital city of “Kan-chih-pu-lo” (i.e. Kanchipuram). Tirujnanasambandar^[6], the younger contemporary of Appar during his visit to the Siva temples at Tiruvanmiyur and Mylapore, refers to the followers of heterodox sects in the region, whom he condemns as those, who are cunning and speak lies. Two late Jaina literatures viz., Neminathan (12^th century A.D.) and Tiru Nurrandadi (14^th century A.D.), though of a later period, are important as they refer to Mylapore as a Jaina center, where the 22^nd Tirthankara Neminatha was worshipped^[7]. Similarly an inscription from Santhome datable to 12^th –13^th century A.D. also attests to the existence of a Jaina temple dedicated to Neminatha at this place^[8]. In support of this literary tradition, several Jaina images datable between 6^th to 7^th centuries A.D. have been discovered in the surrounding regions like Santhome, Pulal, Villivakkam^[9] and Poonamalle^[10]. Inscription from Tirunagesvaram^[11] and Mangadu^[12] also proves the existence of Jaina palli in the region.

Tirupparuttikunram continues to be popular as a famous Jaina centre of South India during the reign of Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha and the Chandraprabha temple (Figure 41) was probably built during the last few decades of his reign. The shrine located on the upper storey of the temple, enshrines a stucco image of Chandranatha as the principal figure, two smaller images of Kunthunatha, the seventeenth Tirthankara and Vardhamana^[13]. As the images are of stucco, it can only be said that the temple continues to receive patronage and the local Jains still worship the images to this day. An inscription^[14] dated in the 18^th regnal year (circa 708 A.D.) of Rajasimha engraved on a loose slab in the second prakara of Kamakshi amman temple at Kanchipuram, makes it known that there existed a temple dedicated to Arhat Mahilampalli. However, the exact whereabouts of the temple is not known, as the inscription was re-engraved in the 9^th century A.D. Nagaswamy^[15] assigns the unfinished cave temple at Vilappakkam with the figure of a Jaina image, the Jaina temple at Tirumalai^[16] and a group of twenty-four seated Tirthankara images hewn in two rows on the hill of Tirunathakunru^[17] to the time of Rajasimha. At Tirumalai, among the many creations of later period, he identified on stylistic grounds three sculptures, reperesenting Parsvanatha with attendants, a seated Tirthankara and Bahubali flanked by female attendants as of the reign of Rajasimha.

The inscriptions and sculptural evidence (fig. 42) from Panchapandavamalai (Tiruppanamalai, Vandavasi taluk) at Vilappakkam in one of the natural caverns show, that it continued to be a Jaina centre in the reign of Nandivarman II. An inscription^[18] of the 14^th year of the king (circa 747 A.D.) refers to the donation of gold for the purpose of feeding the Jaina monks at Sattamangalam (Kilsattamangalam, Vandavasi taluk). Another inscription of his reign from the same place^[19] records, the gift of gold by a daughter of the Jaina ascetic for providing food offering to the Jaina basadi. Near by in a modern Jaina temple a seated Tirthankara image, which could be of the reign of Nandivarman II was also noticed^[20]. An inscription^[21] of the 50^th year (circa 781 A.D.) of the king refers to the chiselling of the image of Ponni-yakkiyar, who has a golden lusture (identified with Siddhayaki, the yakshi of Mahavira). Thus, this shows the continued popularity of Jainism atleast at select centres like Vilappakkam and Sattamangalam during the long reign of Nandivarman II. Tirupparuttikunram (Jina Kanchi), known by the name Amanserkkai^[22] continued to be popular in the reign of Nandivarman II.

Reference to the existence of a Jaina temple at Vedal (Vandavasi taluk) during the reign of this king is known from an inscription engraved on a boulder near the natural cave known as Andar-madam, which mentions the temple as Vidar-palli^[23]. However, it has to be noted that the patronage to this faith was by private individuals and not by the king directly. There is also a tradition recorded by Tirumangai alvar, that Nandivarman II persecuted the Jaina and Buddha monks. Accordingly a panel on the western wall of Vaikunthaperumal temple at Kanchipuram (Figure 40) depicting corporal punishment inflicted on two men, by piercing them though a spike is interpreted by some scholars^[24] as a scene of impalement. Contemporary alvar Tondaradippodi^[25] applauds a policy of religious persecution towards heritic sects and recommended chopping off of the heads of Jaina and Bauddha monks. Nothing with certainty can be said about the depiction as it could also be a portrayal of some corporal punishment inflicted on a criminal person. That Jainism continued in the Pallava country even after Nandivarman II, is attested by an inscription^[26] from Perumandur (Tindivanam taluk) dated in the 19^th regnal year (circa 865 A.D.) of Nandivarman III, which records the gift of paddy to the Perumpalli, probably referring to the Rshabanatha temple, on the wall of which the inscription is engraved. Similar evidence can be had from an inscription^[27] from Sattamangalam of the reign of Kampavarman (circa 875 A.D.), which records the renovation of the Jaina temple and palli, the erection of a mukhamandapa and a temple to Yakshi Bhatt/ari. This shows not only the popularity of Jainism in the area, but also the continued practice among the Jains regarding the worshipping of Yakshi images.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

P. B. Desai, Jainism in South India, Sholapur, 1957, p. 48

[2]:

Transactions of the Archaeological Society of South India, 1958–59, pp. 40–83.

[3]:

Mys. Arch. Rep., 1938, pp. 80–90.

[4]:

Marxia N. Gandhi, “Art Treasures of Thiruvadigai”, in South Indian Studies –I, Madras, 1978, pp. 150 -151.

[5]:

Watters, On Yuan Chwang’s Travels in India (629–645 A.D.), vol. II, London 1904-05, p. 227.

[6]:

Tirumurai II, padigam 140, v. 10

[7]:

K. V. Raman, History of the Madras Region, Madras, 1957, pp. 189–192.

[8]:

Rev. H. Hosten, Antiquities from Santhome and Mylapore, p. 74 ff.

[9]:

Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, 1911, no. 5.

[10]:

A.S.I.–A.R. 1926–27, p. 231.

[11]:

Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, 1929–30, no. 224.

[12]:

Ibid., 1908, no. 358.

[13]:

T. N. Ramachandran, Tirupparuttikunram and its Temples, Chennai, 1934, Reprint 2002, pp. 11–18.

[14]:

Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, 1954-55, no. 360 and p. 16.

[15]:

R. Nagaswamy, Facets of South Indian Art and Architecture, Vol. II. New Delhi, 2003, pp. 46–48.

[16]:

South Indian Inscriptions, I, nos. 66–67.

[17]:

South Indian Inscriptions, XVII, no. 262.

[18]:

Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy 1968–69, B 219.

[19]:

Ibid. 1968–69, B 220.

[20]:

R. Nagaswamy, op.cit., pp. 248.

[21]:

Epigraphia Indica, vol. IV, no. 14 -A.

[22]:

Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, 1958–59, A 10.

[23]:

Ibid. 1908, no. 82.

[24]:

C. Minakshi, op.cit., pp. 49–50.

[25]:

Tirumalai, v. 8.

[26]:

Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy 1902, no. 220.

[27]:

Ibid. 1968–69, B. 221.