Origin of Sculptural Art (b): Pre-Pallava Period

Until the rise of the Pallava dynasty, the early historical period especially in the northern parts of Tamil Nadu is bereft of any sculptural art carved out of stone. This may be due to the wide prevalence of the practice of using perishable materials like clay, terracotta, stucco and wood for carving sculptures. Several scholars^[1] also viewed that the usage of stone for making sepulchral monuments had probably forbidden them to use the same raw material for religious purpose. The taboo on using stone as objects of worship can be clearly seen by the absence of images in the garbhagriha of the cave-temples executed by Mahendravarman I and his son Narasimhavarman I. Perhaps the people were reluctant to accept images of gods and goddesses made out of stone and the object of worship continued to be either stucco, wood or simply a painted image drawn on the rear wall of the shrine.

Sangam literatures like Ettuthokai, Pattupattu and Tolkappiyam gives some reference to the presence of images of gods and goddesses. Further, the way the various gods and goddesses are described also hints indirectly at the presence of image worship albeit made of perishable materials. A brief overview of the same is given below:

A rare reference to an image sculptured out of stone can be found in Ahananuru^[2]. The author while describing about the Kolli mountains says that it was further beautified by the carving of an image of Kollippavai on its sides. Reference to structures carved out of rock can be found in Aham no. 93 and also in the Nedunalvadai^[3], of the Pattupattu collection. Interestingly in Aham no. 167 reference to a painted image in the shrine of a brick built temple can be found. From Pattinapalai^[4] it is found that Karikala Chola built in Puhar and Urandai many temples adorned with the flags of the different deities. It is interesting to take note that even in the time of Karikala Chola the main gateway of the fort wasdecorated with an image of Tiru (Lakshmi). From the commentator of Tolka=ppiyam viz., Ilampuranar, it is known that image worship was also prevalent^[5]. However the material with which the image was made is not known.

Indirect reference to an image can be found through the description of various gods and goddesses as well. Pur/ ana= nuru refers to the construction of temples dedicated to Siva and gives detailed description of his various forms. In Puram no. 6 a temple dedicated to Siva was said to be constructed by the Pandya king Palyagasalai-mudukudumi Peruvaludi. In a subsequent verse, mention is made of a temple of Siva with a mandapa made of silver^[6]. Siva was conceived as having locks of hair on his head (tal catai polinta aruntavatten)^[7], three eyes (mukkat-/celvan)^[8], a blue throat (marumitarru annal)^[9] and is described as having Parvati as half of his body (nilameni valilai pakattoruvan, i.e. Ardhanari)^[10]. Probably his aspect as Dakshinamurti is revealed in his description as the one who stays under the Banyan tree (alamar celvan)^[11]. His aspect as god of destruction (samharamurti) can be found in Puram no. 56 (mu-eyil utarrai i. e. the destroyer of the three forts,Tripurantaka). Similarly reference to Siva as Gangadhara (the one having Ganges on his head (malaitalai vaittavar) can be found in Aingurunuru^[12]. Kalittogai further mentions Siva as carrying Ganges on the braids of his hair (teru nir cataik karantu)^[13], wearing garlands formed of konrai flowers on the chest and on the head, having eight hands (manimidarru enkaiyay), holding a begging bowl made of skull in his hand and wearing tigers hide as cloth. The various dances of Siva viz., Kodukotti, Pandarangam and Kapalam, which He performed on various occasions^[14] is also mentioned. He is further described as holding a battle axe in one of his hands and possessing the crescent moon on his head^[15]. The legendary account of Ravana, who tried to uproot the Himalayas, the abode of Siva and Uma is also well known. Thus, these literary references show that even before the onset of the Pallava period, various forms of Siva and his divine exploits as narrated in the Puranas were well known to the people.

From Paripadal^[16] iconographic details of Vishnu at Tirumal Irunjolai (also known as Irundaiyur) and his four vyuha forms viz., Sangatkari (Vasudeva), Karunkanvellai (Sankarshana), Ponkatpachai (Kama or Pradyumna) and Painkanmal (Aniruddha)^[17] can be known. He is described as having the Kaustubha and Lakshmi on his chest, holding the conch, disc, gada, bow and arrows in his hands, wearing the makuta, the pitambhara and the vanamala (garland of Tulsi) and having Garuda crest on his flag. He is then hailed as the progenitor of Brahma and Kama and describes His manifestations as Adivaraha, Narasimha and Seshasayi. His brother Balarama is referred to as the wielder of the plough and having a flag with Palmyra symbol. Similarly, the Mullaippattu of the Pattupattu, describe Mal (Vishnu) and Trivikrama and the Perumpanarrupadai^[18] mention how, at Tiruvekha in Kanchipuram, Vishnu assumed the form of Seshasayi, and Brahma is represented as seated on a lotus sprouting from Vishnu’s navel. These descriptions show that the authors of these works had knowledge of Puranas and further endorse the existence of image worship during Sangam age.

Apart from Vishnu, the Paripadal also contains elaborate description of Muruga at Tirupparankunram in its various stanzas^[19] and states that the mandapa walls of the temple contains paintings illustrating scenes from Ramayana and Puranas^[20]. Muruga is described as the offspring of Siva born in the lake of Saravana, fostered by the Krittikas, the beloved of Valli and Devasena, wearer of a garland of kadamba flowers and bearer of the lance, cock and peacock in his hands. The elephant is mentioned as his vehicle and the kadamba tree as his abode. In Puram no. 55, the poet Marutan Ilanakanar mentions Muruga as the presiding deity of Tiruchendur.More description about Muruga and his forms can be found in Tirumurugarruppadai of the Pattupattu, wherein He is mentioned as the red-hued (sey) one, the destroyer of Sura and a son of Siva, who has a bull-banner^[21].

The Silappadikaram, a post-Sangam age work, composed between circa 3^rd century A.D. and 6^th century A.D., refers to the temples of this period by various names such as koyil, niyamam, nagaram, kottam? and palli^[22].The fifth section of Puharkandam^[23], while describing the celebration of festival in honour of Indra at Puhar, narrates worship offered to various gods like Siva, Muruga (Arumuga), Balarama (Valiyon), Vishnu (Nediyon) and Indra in the temples of the city. Further, while referring the evil dream of Kannaki, it mentions various temples in Puhar, that were under worship dedicated to the Kalpaka tree, Airavata, Baladeva, Surya, Kailasa, Muruga-vel, Vajra, Satavahana (Sasta or Harahariputra or Ayyanar), Jaina, Chandra and Sattan^[24]. Reference to the image of Seshasayi-vishnu worshipped in the temple of Turutti (Srirangam), as well as Sthanaka-vishnu on the Tiruvengadam hills (Tirupati) bearing sankha and chakra in his hands is found in Maduraikkandam^[25]. In the Vettuvarai^[26], description is found regarding a temple dedicated to Aiyai (Korravai) being worshipped by the Eiynar of the Maravar tribe who inhabited the area on the way to Madurai. It also throws light on the primitive tradition of decorating a virgin girl with various ornaments, weapons, etc. and worshipping her as representing the goddess^[27]. The Nadukarkadai of Vanjikkandam, mentions that the Chera king Senguttuvan built a temple for Kannaki (Pattini<kkottam) and installed in it her image carved out of the stone brought from the Himalayas^[28]. From the introductory part of the epic, it is known that temples dedicated to Kannaki were also built by the Pandya king of Korkai, the Kosar of Kongu, the Chola king Perunkilli of Koli (Uraiyur) and Gajabahu of Ceylon.

The existence of temples in pre-Pallava period is further proved from the excavations. It also corroborates with the Sangam literature and gave visual proof to the assumption that the sculptural and architectural works of the early period were all made of perishable materials like brick, stucco and wood. For example in the excavations conducted in Kanchipuram^[29], Arikamedu^[30], Uraiyur^[31], Korkai^[32], Kaveripattinam^[33], etc. such evidences can be found. These excavations also yielded many terracottas and few metal figurines of gods and goddesses. Mention has to be made in this connection of a bronze figurine of Buddha from Kaveripattinam dated to 1^st -3^rd century A.D.

From the sixth century A.D., onwards, under the patronage of the Pallavas, the early Pandyas and contemporary minor dynasties like the Muttariyars, the Atiyamans, the Irukkuvels, the Paluvettariyars, the Ays and the Ceras, there ushered in a great era of temple building activity, by using for the first time stone as the raw material^[34]. The temples built by all these ruling dynasties is a repository of sculptural art, inspiring from various religious, natural and secular themes.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

K. R. Srinivasan, Some aspects of religion as revealed by early monuments and literature of the south, Madras, 1960, pp. 5–6; D. Dayalan, “The Temples of Kanchipuram”, in Heritage of the Tamils –Temple Arts, Madras, 1983, p. 293.

[2]:

Aham no. 62.

[3]:

Nedunalvadai, l. 88.

[4]:

Ibid., ll. 195–196.

[5]:

From Porulathikaram, v. 30, it is known that one of the reasons for the separation of a lover from his love was due to his duty towards the protection of images of gods.

[6]:

Puram, no. 58.

[7]:

Ibid., no. 1.

[8]:

Ibid., no. 6.

[9]:

Ibid., no. 55.

[10]:

Ibid., no. 1.

[11]:

Ibid., prayer verse.

[12]:

Aingurunuru, prayer verse and no. 207.

[13]:

Kalittogai, no. 1, l. 2

[14]:

Ibid., no. 1, ll. 6–13. The Koduko/tti was performed after destroying all the things at the deluge, the Pandurangam after destroying the three forts of the Asuras and the Kapalam after killing the tiger and wearing its skin.

[15]:

Ibid., no. 103.

[16]:

Paripadal, nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 13, 15 and the epilogue.

[17]:

Ibid., no. 3.

[18]:

Perumpanarrupadai, ll. 371–392.

[19]:

Paripadal, nos. 5, 8, 9, 14, 17, 18, 19 and 21.

[20]:

Ibid., no. 19.

[21]:

Tirumurugarrupadai, ll. 151–152.

[22]:

Silappadikaram, Urkankadai, ll. 7 -11.

[23]:

Silappadikaram, Indiravilavureduttaikadai, ll. 169–173.

[24]:

Silappadikaram, Kanattiramuraittakadai, ll. 5–15.

[25]:

Silappadikaram, Kadkankadai, ll. 35–56.

[26]:

Silappadikaram, Vettuvarai, ll. 1–5.

[27]:

Ibid., ll. 20–64.

[28]:

Nadukarkadai of Vanjikkandam, ll. 222–235.

[29]:

T. V. Mahalingam, Kancheepuram in Early South Indian History, Bombay, 1969.

[30]:

Vimala Begley, ed., The Ancient Port of Arikamedu—New Excavations and Researches 1989-1992, Vol. I, Pondicherry, 1996.

[31]:

K. V. Raman, Excavations at Uraiyur (Tiruchirapalli) 1965-69, Madras, 1988, pp. 30 ff.

[32]:

K.S. Ramachandran, Archaeology of South India –Tamil Nadu, Delhi, 1980, pp. 92– 130.

[33]:

K. V. Soundara Rajan, Kaveripattinam Excavations (1963-73), New Delhi, 1994, p. 26.

[34]:

D. Dayalan, op.cit., p. 1.