Pallava period (Social and Cultural History)
by S. Krishnamurthy | 2017 | 143,765 words
This study examines the Social and Cultural History of the Pallava period (as gleaned through the Sculptural Art). The Pallavas (6th-9th century A.D.) mainly ruled over the Tondaimandalam (Tondai Nadu) region in the Northern part of Tamil Nadu (South-India). The Pallava dynasty ensured a golden age of architecture, arts, and spirituality and while ...
The Later or the Imperial Pallavas
The first king of the imperial Pallavas is Simhavarman III (circa 540 A.D. -550 A.D.), who was probably the son of Vishnugopavarman, the third king of the line mentioned in Chura grant[1] and belonged to the collateral branch of yuvamaharaja Vishnugopavarman of the Telugu country. However, nothing much is known about the achievements of Simhavarman III, except for the fact that he issued the Pallankoyil plates[2] during his 6th regnal year, recording the grant of the village Amancerkkai in Venkunra-kottam, of Perunagara-nadu and another 16 ½ patti of land in the Damar village as pallichandam to Vajranandik-kuravar of Paruttikunru for offering worship to the Lord Jina. It is interesting to note here, that it is the only copper-plate grant made for the benefaction of the Jaina sect in Pallava period. This charter also records that Simhavarman III sent his son Simhavishnu on a southern expedition to conquer the Chola country and defeated another Simhavishnu. Except for these facts, nothing is known regarding the political achievements of Simhavarman III. Probably late in his life he choose the ascetic path (identified with the Saiva saint Ayyadigal Kadavarkon) and entrusted the kingdom into the able hands of his two sons Simhavishnu and Bhimavarman.
Simhavarman III seems to have maintained cordial relationship with the Gangas and entered into matrimonial alliance with them as can be known from the Hosakote plates issued in the 12th regnal year of the Ganga king Avinita (circa 600 A.D.)[3]. It records a gift made by the king to a Jaina temple, built by the mother of Simhvishnu for the glory of her husband’s family and to increase her own merit. This strange fact of a donation by a royal lady from a Pallava family in the Ganga dominion can only be explained by accepting the fact that she ought to be a princess of the Ganga family.
Of the two sons of Simhavarman III, the Pallava throne at Kanchi was ascended by Simhavishnu and Bhimavarman seems to have ruled over the country of Kambhujadesa with Bhimapura as the capital. Later, in the early quarters of the 8th century A.D., Nandivarma Pallavamalla II, a member from this collateral branch started a new line at Kanchipuram.
In the play Mattavilasaprahasana, its author Mahendravarman I through the mouth of the Sutradhara describes his father as:
“Simhavishnu like a mountain which bore the weight of the Pallavas, has overcome all the circles of feudatory princes by his policy, has the prowess equal to that of Indra and had humiliated even Kubera, the lord of the heavenly wealth by this benevolence, greatness and wealth”[4].
Probably these qualities of Simhavishnu are reflected to some extent in the Pallankoyil plates[5] of his father Simhavarman III. From this record it is known that Simhavishnu (circa 550 A.D. -610 A.D.) conquered the Chola territory and defeated another Simhavishnu. Probably the Chola ruler, whom Simhavishnu defeated was Koccenganan and that another Simhavishnu was the son of Nandivarman, the Telugu-Chola king. From these two victories, Simhavishnu was able to annex the Chola-mandalam and the Renadu area of Andhradesa with the Pallava kingdom. From the Kasakkudi plates of Nandivarman II[6]
it is known that he also defeated the Malaya, Kalabhra, Malava, Chola, Pandya, Simhala and Kerala kings. However, he lost the Karma-rashtra i.e. the modern Guntur district to the Vishnukundins after facing defeat in the hands of its ruler Vikramendra Bhattaraka II as known from his Indrapalanagara copper plate grant[7]. To the north-east of the Pallava kingdom lies the kingdom of Western Chalukyas, which under the leadership of Pulakesin I (566 A.D. -597 A.D.) rose to power after crushing the Kadambas of Banavasi. From the Mahakuta pillar inscription of Mangalesa[8], we knew that Kirtivarman I, his elder brother and son of Pulakesin I conquered many hostile kings including one Dramila, probably the Pallava king Simhavishnu. Thus, from here starts the long battle between the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas.
From the Hosakote plates of Ganga king Avinita, it is known that the mother of Simhavishnu was a Ganga princess. But this matrimonial relationship between the Pallavas and the Gangas seems to have turned into a calamity for Simhavishnu, as he was forced to interfere into the politics of war of succession in the Ganga family, which emerged soon after the death of Avinita. From the Siragunda inscription of Durvinita[9] it is known that a war of succession broke between the sons of Avinita namely Durvinita and his step-brother, who according to the inscription was helped by one Kaduvetti, who was most likely Simhavishnu.
From the Avantisundarikatha of Dandin, it is known that Bharavi the court poet of Vishnuvardhana, the founder of Eastern Chalukya dynasty and brother of Pulakesin II visited the court of Ganga Durvinita and Pallava Simhavishnu. This shows that in spite of political feuds, cultural interactions between the two countries had continued. It is also interesting to note that even though the mother of Simh?avishnu was a Jaina as described above, he remained a devout Vaishnava[10]. Similarly in spite of the Saivite leanings of Simhavarman III, the father of Simhavishnu, he made grant of village and land to a Jaina institution, probably under the influence of his queen. Thus within a single family could be seen a Saivite father, a Jaina mother and a Vaishnavite son. Thus these events reflect the religious tolerance of the age.
Simhavishnu was succeeded by his son Mahendravarman I (circa 610 A.D. -630 A.D.), who according to Dubreuil[11] was the son of a Vishnukundin princess and so he was named after his grandfather Vikramahendravarman I. Perhaps this influence from a Telugu region through his maternal side is reflected in many of his epithets which are Telugu in origin like Nilvuleneyambu, Vankiru, Karampu Pasarambu, Bujjanakanthu, Pisugu, Ventulaivittu, Kurrambu etc., which are furnished in his inscriptions at the Lalitankura-pallavesvara-griham (Upper cave temple) at Tiruchirapppalli, in the cave temple at Pallavaram and on a pillar from a ruined mandapa in the Ekambranatha temple at Kanchipuram[12]. However, it seems that by the time Mahendravarman ascended the throne, the Vishnukundin kingdom was annexed by Pulakesin II of the Chalukyas of Badami dynasty. From the occurrence of an inscription of Mahendravarman I from Chejzarla[13] (Narasaraopet taluk, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh) in the Karmarashtra region, it could be assumed that the Pallavas had tried to get control over that region. The inscription being fragmentary and damaged, could not furnish any useful data except for the mention of the names Kapotesvara (i.e. the Kapotesvara temple where the slab was found erected), Bharadvaja-gotra, Mahendravikrama-maharaja and his title Avanibhajana. The title is reminiscent of the one found in his cave temple at Siyamangalam. The Kasakkudi plate of Nandivarman II[14] states that Mahendravarman I defeated his chief enemies at Pullalur. Probably this enemy could be identified as Nalladi, a descendant of Koccenganan of the Chola dynasty[15].
The period of the rule of Mahendravarman I witnessed a number of cultural activities. He has executed as many as eleven cave temples all over Tondaimandalam and a solitary one in the heart of the Chola territory at Tiruchirappalli[16]. From the inscription engraved on the southern wall of the mandapa in the rock-cut cave temple at Mamandur[17] it is known that he also authored two plays viz., Mattavilasaprahasana and Bhagavadajjukam. It was also believed that he was the author of a commentary on painting called Dakshinachitram[18]. Another work, which can be assigned to Mahendravarman I is Gandhamadana. It is a work known only from a reference in Dandin’s Avantisundarikatha, wherein it assigns Sribhara as its author. Probably the name Sribhara could be a title of the author and can be compared with similar epithet commonly taken by the Pallava kings[19]. Regarding the religious leaning of the king, it is known from Periyapuranam, a work assignable to 12th century A.D., that he was originally a follower of Jaina faith and later converted by Tirunavakkarasar alias Appar into the Saiva fold.
Mahendravarman I was succeeded by his son Narasimhavarman I (circa 630 A.D.-668 A.D.). At about 634 A.D., he faced defeat in the hands of Pulakesin II. This facilitated the Cholas to become independent and forced the Banas and the Telugu Choda chiefs to shift their alliance to the Chalukyas. This important political event is also noticed in the Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II, where it is mentioned that he caused prosperity to the Cholas, Keralas and Pandyas[20]. Perhaps this onslaught of Pulakesin II against the Pallavas is the result of the attempted advancement made by Mahendravarman I into the Karma-rashtra, as can be known from the presence of his inscription at Chej=zarla. From the Kuram plates[21] of his grandson Paramesvaravarman I, it is learnt that very soon Narasimhavarman I regained his strength, conquered the Cholas and forced the Telugu-Chodas to accept his suzerainty. This revival of the Pallavas provoked Pulakesin II to wage an expedition against them and it resulted into series of battles at places like Pariyala, Manimangala, Suramara, etc. But this time victory was on the side of Narasimhavarman I and he forced the Chalukyan army to retreat. The Pallava army marched further and destroyed their capital city Vatapi. From a fragmentary inscription dated in the 13th regnal year of the king Narasimhavarman I, found engraved on a rock behind the Mallikarjuna temple at Badami, the above account of the exploits of the Pallavas is further endorsed. In addition, it also mentions the erection of a jayastambha at Badami by the Pallava king[22]. The exploits of this king is also found mentioned in the Udayendiram plates of Nandivarman II[23] and also in the Velurpalaiyam plates of Nandivarman III[24]. In all these battles with Pulakesin, the Pallava king is supported by his Ceylonese friend Manavarman.
From the Ceylonese chronicle Mahavamsa[25], it is known that Narasimhavarman I helped Manavarman to get back the throne of Ceylon in 668 A.D., which was usurped by his cousin Mana. Probably the Kasakkudi plate of Nandivarman II[26], hints at this episode, when it praises Narasimhavarman I as surpassed the glory and valour of Lord Rama by His conquest of Lanka. Thus these various military achievements of Narasimhavarman I validates his claim of celebration of asvamedha and bahusuvarna sacrifices in his Sivanvayil inscription.[27]
In spite of the crushing defeat of Pulakesin II, his son and successor Vikramaditya I, seems to have sent an expedition and conquered the northern part of the Nellore and Kurnool areas by about 658 A.D. His Talamanchi plates[28] also hints at the annexation of Karma-rashtra with the Chalukyan kingdom. Vikramaditya I through his Kurakoti[29], Savanur[30] and Gadval inscriptions[31], claims that he got victory by fighting successively with three Pallava monarchs, viz., Narasimha (Narasimhavarman I), Mahendra (Mahendravarman II) and Isvara (Paramesvaravarman I).
At about 639 A.D., the Chinese pilgrim Yuan-chwang visited Kanchipuram and makes a general note in his traveller’s account about the people and city[32]. Narasimhavarman I is credited with many innovative creations in the sphere of rock-cut architecture and sculpture in the port city of Mamallapuram.
Narasimhavarman I was succeeded by Mahendravarman II (circa 668 A.D. -669 A.D.). The Kuram plates of Paramesvaravarman I[33] described him as strict imposer of the sacred laws of caste and the orders (supranita-varnasrama-dharmasya) and he was described as a protector of temples, brahmanas and ghatikas in the Vunnaguruvapalem plates of Paramesvaravarman I[34] and Kasakkudi plates of Nandivarman II Pallavamalla. Probably at about 669 A.D. Mahendravarman II was defeated or killed in a battle with the Chalukya Vikramaditya.
Paramesvaravsarman I (circa 669 A.D. -690 A.D.), the son and successor of Mahendravarman II, seems to have exhausted all his energy in early part of his reign in a series of wars with the three powers viz. the Chalukyas, the Gangas and the Pandyas. According to the Honnur plates of Chalukya Vikramaditya I[35], dated in his 16th regnal year (circa 670 A.D. -671 A.D.), he camped in Malliyur on his way to Kanchipuram and with the help of the Gangas of Talakkad defeated the Pallavas. To avenge the defeat, the Pallava king first waged a war against the the Ganga ruler Bhuvikrama, the supporter of the Chalukyas. From the Bedirur grant of Bhuvikrama[36] and Hallegere plates of his brother and successor Sivamara[37], it is known that in this battle, which occurred at a place called Vilande, Paramesvaravarman I not only faced defeat in the hands of Bhuvikrama, but he was also deprived of his royal necklace. As a result of this aggressive policy of Paramesvaravarman I, he was again attacked by the Chalukyan king Vikramaditya I and seized Kanchipuram= after defeating him. According to the Chalukyan records he proceeded further south and encamped at Uragapura in the Chola province. However, in spite of these series of defeats, it is known from his Kuram plates that he gathered enough strength and finally delivered a crushing defeat on the Chalukyan king Vikramaditya I. From the Udayendiram plates of Nandivarman II, it is known that the battle occurred at a place called Peruvalanallur, a village near Uraiyur in the Chola territory itself, when the Chalukyan army was camping there. Later Paramesvaravarman I sent an army to Vatapi, under his able general Paranjoti, who captured it and brought the spoils to Kanchi at about 679 A.D.
His period also continued to witness the religious fervor ignited by the Saiva saints, especially Sambandar-nayanar who was his contemporary. Indeed his military general Paranjoti attained fame as a devout nayanmar and came to be known as Siruttondar-nayanar. From his Vunna-guruvapalem plates[38] it is known that he was a staunch follower of god Mahesvara and a paramabrahmanya. This is further attested in his Kuram plates[39], which opens with three invocatory verses addressed to Siva. It also refers to the construction of a temple for the deity and grant of devadana and brahmadeya lands in favor of the temple of Vidyavinita-Pallava-Paramesvara-griham at Kuram. The Sirrambakkam stone inscription[40] provides the earliest clear epigraphical reference to the construction of a structural temple during the Pallava period.
The next ruler on the Pallava throne was Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha (circa 690 A.D. -728 A.D.), the son and successor of Paramesvaravarman I. It seems that his reign was comparatively free from threatening invasions and as a result, an all round prosperity and cultural development with special importance to temple building activity could be seen. However, some of his epithets, such as Aparajitaha, Amitramallaha, Arimardanaha, Yuddharjunaha, Sangramaramaha, Mahamallaha, Ranaviraha, Rananjayaha, Danusuraha, Samaradhananjayaha, etc. in the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram[41] and the scenary of war in the historical panels in the Vaikunthaperumal temple at Kanchipuram[42] may indicate that he led invasions and raids against his enemy kingdom so as to acquire immense wealth. His epithet Kalakala in an inscription of his queen Rangapataka in the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram may suggest that he subdued the Kalabhra chief Kurruva[43]. His Chalukyan contemporaries are Vinayaditya (679 A.D. -696 A.D.) and his son Vijayaditya (696 A.D. -733 A.D.).
Rajasimha seems to have made contacts with foreign countries including China. The term Dvipalaksham in his Vayalur pillar inscription[44] may suggest that the Pallava influence reached as far as Lakshadvipa or Lakshadweep islands. The phrase Sailadhirajatanaya occurring in an inscription of Rangapataka, the queen of Rajasimha in the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram suggests, that she is of the Sailendra family[45]. Rajasimha also made contacts with the emperor of China K’ai Yuen (720 A.D.) and sent an embassy informing him of his intention to go on war against the Arabs and Tibetans and requested the emperor to give a name to his army. The Chinese emperor replied by naming the army as “the army which cherished virtue”. Again Rajasimha sent message to the Chinese emperor that he had constructed a temple as per his wish and requested him to give a name to it. The Chinese emperor responded by sending an embassy in return to gratify the wishes of the Pallava king. It seems that Rajasimha constructed a Buddhist Vihara at Nagapattanam, and named the temple after the Chinese emperor[46].
From his inscriptions it is learnt that, Rajasimha was a tolerant ruler and equally worshipped Siva, Vishnu and Subrahmanya. His many epithets like Sankarabhakta, Devadevabhakta, Isvarabhakta, Sivachudamani, Sripativallabha, Paramabhagavata, etc., stands testimony to this fact. From the Kasakkudi plates of Nandivarman II Pallavamalla[47], it seems that Rajasimha had immensely made donations to the Brahmanas and temples. His period was graced by the proponent of the Advaita philosophy, Adi Sankaracharya as well as nayanmars like Sundarar and Pusalal-nayanar. Rajasimha was also a patron of art, literature and music. Some of his epithets like Vadyavidyadhara, Atodya Tumburu and Vi+na Narada are indicative of this proficiency in music[48]. Dandin, the author of Dasakumaracharita and Avantisundarakatha was his contemporary. He also deserves the credit for building many structural temples like the twin Kshatriyasimhesvara, Rajasimhesvara with the obscure Narapatisimhapallava-vishnugriham among its midst at Mamallapuram, the Talapurisvara temple at Panamalai, the Airavatesvara and the Rajasimhesvra temple complex at Kanchipuram.
From an inscription in the Kailasanatha temple[49] and another one on a loose stone-slab in the Kamakshi-amman temple[50] at Kanchipuram, it is known that Rajasimha had two queens named Rangapataka and Lokamadevi. From an inscription on the Mahendravarmesvara shrine[51] in the Kailasanatha temple complex at Kanchipuram, it is known that Rajasimha had a son named Mahendravarman III. However, it seems that he predeceased his father, leaving behind two sons namely Jaya Pallavadhiraja and Vrddhi Pallavadhiraja[52].
In circa 728 A.D. Paramesvaravarman II ascended the throne of Kanchi and is described in the charters of his successors as the son of Narasimhavarman II. However his rule seems to be a period of turbulence in the Pallava kingdom. In support of the sons of Mahendravarman III, Chalukya Vikramaditya II with assistance from Ganga Erayappa II, the son of the Ganga king Sripurusha invaded Kanchi, defeated him and perhaps even forced him to appoint one of the princes as his heir apparent. However, in consequence of this alliance, at about circa 731 A.D., the Gangas had to face an attack from Paramesvaravarman II, but in vain. The Pallava king seems to have lost his life in the battle with the Ganga king Sripurusha at a place called Vilande[53].
The untimely sudden death of Paramesvaravarman II left the Pallava kingdom in turmoil. Even though Paramesvaravarman II appointed one of the sons of Mahendravarman III as his heir apparent, due to pressure from the Chalukyas, it seems that the courtiers were not satisfied with the claimants to the throne. The Udayendiram plates of Nandivarman II[54] and Rayakota plates of Skandasishya[55] refer to Chitramaya alias Pallavaraya Skandasishya as a contestant to the throne at Kanchipuram, which was also not accepted by the courtiers. It is possible that this Skandasishya may be one among the two Pallava princes i.e. Jaya and Vrddhi Pallavadhiraja.
From the Kasakkudi plates[56] it is learnt that Nandivarman II (circa 731 A.D. -796 A.D.), a descendent of Bhimavarman, the younger brother of Simhavishnu, was choosen as a ruler by the subjects. It further records that he was a son of Hiranya and his mother was Rohini. His inscriptions beneath the panels at the Vaikunthaperumal temple at Kanchipuram[57], reveals more details regarding his selection as the king of Kanchipuram. It states that the courtiers of the Pallava kingdom viz., the Mattras, the Ghatikayars and the Mulaprakrtis, who had a major role in the selection of the king, finally sent a message to Khambhojadesa, where Hiranyavarma Maharaja of the Katavesa-kula, belonging to a collateral branch of the Pallavas was ruling with Bhimapura as the capital. He was a descendant of Bhimavarman, the younger brother of Simhavishnu. Of the four sons of Hiranyavarman viz., Srimalla, Ranamalla, Samkramalla and Pallavamalla, the twelve year old Pallavamalla accepted the offer to ascend the throne at Kanchipuram. He was sent accompanied by an able general Udayachandra of the Pu-Ca race. The newly chosen Pallava king was received by one Pallavadiariyar evidently a subordinate chieftain at the outskirts of Kanchi. On hearing their arrival the Mahasamantar, the Nagarattar and the Mulaprakritis of the Pallava court and also a Muttaraiyar chief named Kadaka Muttaraiyar received the prince and his retinue at the palace. Then Pallavamalla was anointed the king of the Pallavas under the abhiseka name Nandivarman.
Meanwhile the other contestant of the Pallava throne, Skandasishya of the Rayako/ta plates[58], with the support of Chalukyas and Banas managed to declare himself as ruler of a part of the Pallava kingdom. Thus it seems that the Pallava kingdom under Nandivarman II comprised the area of Tondaimandalam and the territory of the Muttaraiyars (viz., portion of Kaveri delta) as gleaned from the provenance of his inscriptions in the early years of his reign. This struggle between Nandivarman II and Skandasishya alias Chitramaya, supported by the Chalukyas of Badami, Pandyas of Madurai and other powers continued for about twenty years from 731 A.D. to about 752 A.D.
From the Kendur plates of Vikramaditya II[59], it is known that at about 734 A.D. the ruler of the Western Chalukya empire Vikramaditya II, supported by Ganga Sripurusha marched into Kanchi, defeated and captured the royal insignia of Pallavamalla like the twin musical instruments viz., Khatumukhavaditra and Samudraghosha and also the royal sceptre Khatvangadhvaja. Even though he plundered Kanchipuram of its riches, he left the city undestroyed and made liberal grants to the Brahmanas, the poor and to the temple of Rajasimhesvara, which was built by Narasimhapotavarman. This liberal gesture on part of Vikramaditya II is also attested in the Kannada inscription[60] engraved on one of the pillars of the mandapa in the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram. Probably he further entrusted the conquered Pallava territory to Skandasishya, who has ruled a part of the Pallava kingdom till about 745 A.D., in which year probably the Rayakota plates were issued by him. However, Nandivarman II regained mastery over Tondaimandalam and a good part of the Pallava country by circa 740 A.D., as can be seen from the availability of an inscription issued in his 9th regnal year[61]. From the Vakkaleri plates of Kirtivarman II[62] it is known that by about 743 A.D., Nandivarman II faced another Chalukyan invasion led by Kirtivarman II, the son of Vikramaditya II, supported by his feudatory Rashtrakuta Dantidurga. The battle ended with victory on the side of the Western Chalukya and Rashtrakuta. The exploits of Dantidurga on the Pallava kingdom is also known through the Kadaba plates[63] and Bagumra plates of Govinda III.[64]
The Udayendiram plates of Nandivarman II[65] dated in his 21st regnal year (circa 752 A.D.), refer to many northern campaigns undertaken by his general Udayachandra and consequently his victory in the battlefields of Nimbavana, Chutavana, Sankaragrama, Nellur[66], Nelveli, Suravalundur, etc. and annexed those territories with the Pallava kingdom. He also defeated the Sabara king Udayana in the battlefield at Nelveli, the Nishada chief Prithvivyagra, subjected the country of Vishnuraja[67] to the Pallavas, destroyed the fort of Kalidurga and defeated the Pandya army at the village of Mannaikkudi. Perhaps these northern conquests were carried out by Udayachandra for helping the Rashrtrakuta ruler Dantidurga, who by that time has made an alliance with Nandivarman II with an eye on his own political independence. Consequently these campaigns paved way for supplanting the Western Chalukyan power and it put to an end the series of Pallava-Chalukya wars. On the basis of the Mallam inscription of Nandivarman II[68] dated in his 15th regnal year (746 A.D. -747 A.D.), Dr. T. V. Mahalingam[69] opines that these conquests were made before 746 A.D. The inscription records some endowment made to the god Subrahmanya of Tiruvanmur consisting of 55 kalanju of gold and possibly some land, on the petition of the Aluva Arasar with Chalukki Araisar as the executor of the grant made by the Pallava king. If the identification[70] of Aluva Arasar with the Western Chalukya king Aluvarasa II is correct and Chalukki Araisar, of this record is the same as Vishnuraja of the Udayendiram plates i.e. Eastern Chalukya king Vishnuvardhana III, then it indicates that by the time of this inscription (i.e. 746 A.D.), both the Western and Eastern Chalukyas became a sub-ordinate of the Pallavas.
Almost at the same time when Udayachandra was aiding Dantidurga in his northern conquests, Skandasishya of the Rayakota plates with the help of Pandyas of Madurai beseiged Nandivarman II in Nandipura, i.e. modern Nathankoyil near Kumbakonam. However, as mentioned in Udayendiram plates, Udayachandra finally succeeded in beheading Chitramaya Pallavaraya, released his master after a decisive victory in the battle with the Pandyas at Mannaikkudi (Mayuram taluk, Thanjavur district) and restored Nandivarman II to the throne. In recognition of the services made by Udayachandra, Nandivarman II on his 21st regnal year (circa 752 A.D.) granted the village of Kumaramangala Vellattur in the Paschimasraya-visaya to 108 brahmanas after renaming it as Udayachandramangalam.
Next, Pallavamalla in about 764 A.D. came in conflict with Ganga Sripurusha with a view of recovering the royal necklace inset with the jewel ugrodaya, which was earlier snatched by the Ganga king Bhuvikrama from Paramesvaravarman I. But in spite of his victory in war, he could not get the necklace back. Meanwhile Sripurusha with a view to check the growing power of the Rashtrakuta under Krishna I, interfered into the politics of war of succession that emerged between the two sons of Krishna I, viz., Govinda II and his younger brother Dhruva. As a result, a temporary friendship developed between Sripurusha and Nandivarman II to achieve a common goal of weakening their neighboring kingdom. They along with the Chalukya rulers of Vengi and Malava supported the Rashtrakuta prince Govinda II against Dhruva. But such is the military prowess of Dhruva that he emerged victorious and once again waged war against all his opponents, especially Pallavas and got a thumping victory. Similarly Dhruva appointed his son Stambha as viceroy of Gangavadi province, after successfully defeating the Ganga ruler Sripurusha and imprisoning the crown prince Sivamara at about 783 A.D. Taking advantage of the weakened position of the Gangas, Nandivarman II led an expedition against them at about 789 A.D., and not only got a trumping vicotory but also recovered the royal necklace inset with jewel Ugraodaya[71]. Soonafter, another war of succession broke in the Rashtrakuta kingdom, this time between the two sons of Dhruva viz., Govinda III and his brother Stambha. Govinda III, with a view to gain the support of the Gangas and the Pallavas, released the Ganga prince Sivamara from prison and together with Nandivarman II, anointed Sivamara II on the Ganga throne.
In the Pandyan kingdom the contemporaries of Nandivarman II are Arikesari Parankusa Maravarman alias Rajasimha I (710 A.D. -765 A.D.) and his son Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan alias Varaguna I (795 A.D. -815 A.D.). The relationship of Pallavamalla with the Pandyas was sore right from the beginning of his rule, as the Pandyas supported the cause of his opponent Chitramaya to the Pallava throne. The Pallava–Pandya conflict continued in a series of battles. At about 767 A.D., Pallavamalla faced defeat at the hands of the Pandyas in a battle at Pennagadam.
The Kasakkudi and Tandantottam plates as well as the hymns of his contemporary saint, Tirumangai Alvar praises Pallavamalla as a devout Vaishnavite. He patronized the construction of the Vaikunthaperumal temple at his capital city and his queen Dharmamahadevi caused the construction of the Muktesvara temple at the same place. According to the inscription[72] found on the walls of this temple, she also granted land as devadana for the maintenance of the temple, performance of daily rituals and arranged a complete temple establishment (talipparivaram) consisiting of 15 dancing girls, five reciters of mantras, twelve religious expounders and twelve cooks for providing prepared food for the above persons. His period also witnessed the construction of the Sundaravaradaperumal temple at Uttaramerur.[73]
The next ruler on the Pallava throne was Dantivarman (796 A.D. -846 A.D.), who according to the Velurpalaiyam plates of his son Nandivarman III,[74] was born to Nandivarman II through the princess Reva, a daughter of Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga.
Even though Dantivarman had filial relation to the Rashtrakutas through his mother’s side, yet due to his eagerness to help Stambha, a younger brother of Govinda III to ascend the throne, he faced their wrath. The Manne grant of Govinda III[75] makes it known that he invaded the Pallava territory after successfully defeating Dantivarman. However soonafter when Amogavarsha ascended the Rashtrakuta throne, confusion prevailed in their kingdom and as a result Dantidurga was able to regain his position. But the destiny had it that Dantivarman could not enjoy his newly found freedom for a long time. The disaster now came in the form of the Telugu-Choda ruler Srikantha, who conquered and occupied Tondaimandalam and appointed as its ruler a member of a junior branch of the Pallavas named Abhimanasiddhi, who appears to have some relation to the Chodas as well. No inscription of Dantivarman was found between his 21st and 49th years of his reign (i.e. from circa 818 A.D. -845 A.D.). This interregnum caused by the Telugu-Chodas was, put to an end in the 49th regnal year of Dantivarman, who was assisted by his crown prince Nandivarman III, born through the Kadamba princess Aggalanimmadi, regained his lost territory[76]. Even though the reign of Dantivarman saw much turmoil yet, the inscriptions refer to some of the chiefs, who recognized him as their overlord like the Chola chief Ulagaperumanar of Cholanadu[77], Vanakkovaraiyar[78], Kaduvetti Muttaraiyan[79] and the Bana chief Vijayaditya Mavilavanarayar.[80]
Nandivarman III (circa 846 A.D. -869 A.D.) was the hero of the quasi -historical Tamil poem Nandikkalambakam253. It describes him in glorious terms as having won series of battles at Tellaru[81], Kurukodu[82], Palaiyaru[83], Vellaru[84] and Nellaru[85]. He is said to have held sway over the Bana kings and is described as the lord of the northern Vengadam hills[86]. Not only the kings of the Chera, Chola and Pandya dynasty, but even the kings of the region further north are said to have paid tribute to him[87]. The Velurpalaiyam plates of the king issued in the 6th regnal year (circa 852 A.D.) describe him as acquired the fortunes of the Pallava kingdom by killing his enemies on the battlefields, but it does not mention the famous battle of Tellaru. As the grant was made at the request of certain Kumarankusa of Chola race (probably Renadu Cholas[88]), it can be assumed that the Renadu Cholas has became subordinates during his reign. The earliest inscription of his reign, which authenticates the battle of Tellaru mentioned in the literature Nandikkalambakam, is a stone inscription found from the Ghritastanesvara temple at Tillaisthanam[89], in Thanjavur district. It was dated in the 10th regnal year (circa 856 A.D.) of the king and describes him as Tellarrerinda Nandipottaraiyar (Nandipottaraiyar, the victor of Tellaru). Thus on the basis of the Velurpalaiyam plates and Tillaisthanam inscription, it can be assumed that the battle of Tellaru took place some where between his 6th and 10th regnal years. Inscription of the Bana chieftain Vikramaditya Mavalivanarayan[90] and those of the Kodumbulur[91] and Muttaraiya[92] chiefs prove that they were subordinates of the Pallavas. Even though he won a massive victory against the Pandyas of Madurai in the battle of Tellaru and recaptured the southern portions of the Pallava kingdom, yet by 854 A.D. he tasted defeat at Kudamukkil (i.e. modern Kumbakkonam) served by the Pandyan king Srimara Srivallabha as mentioned in the Sinnamanur plates[93]. However soonafter, the Pandyan kingdom itself witnessed turmoil and Srimara Srivallabha lost his life due to invasion by the Ceylonese king Sena II. It appears that Sena II handed over the reigns of Pandyan kingdom to another claimant of the throne and this deprived Varaguna II, the son of Srimara Srivallabha of his right. He fled to the Pallava kingdom and sought the support of Nandivarman III, which was promptly granted. From the Bahur plates of Nrpatungavarman[94], it is learnt that Nandivarman III was also assisted by his son in this battle. With the support of the Pallava army, Varaguna II regained the Pandyan throne and as a result became a faithful ally of the Pallavas. The Rashtrakutas also helped Nandivarman III by sending Seuna cavalry[95] to subdue the Chola ruler Aditya I, who was trying to assert independent rule. In this fight he was also helped by his loyal Bana feudatory Srivadhu Vallabha Malladeva and Pandya Varaguna II. Towards the end of his reign he also faced occasional intrusions from the Nolambas, who were kept in check by the loyal Bana feudatories.
An inscription in Tamil language from Takua -pa (Thailand)[96] bears testimiony to the continued commercial relations between South-east Asia and the Pallavas. The inscription refers to a mercantile corporation named Manigrammattar, under whose protection the tank called Avani-naranam, dug by the lord of Nangur was placed.
From the Bahur plates of Nrpatungavarman[97] it is known that the chief queen of Nandivarman III was Sankha, the daughter of the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I. Probably he has another queen named Adigal Kandan Marampavai. He had two sons, Kampavarman and Nrpatungavarman, of which the latter according to Bahur and Chitrur plates[98] was the son of the Rashtrakuta princess Sankha. The Bahur plates and Nandikkalambakam refers to Nandivarman III as a devout Saiva. His period saw the construction of the Vishnu temple at Kiliyanur[99] and the Siva temple at Srikkattuppalli.
Although Nrpatungavarman (869 A.D. -910 A.D.) was a younger son of Nandivarman III, he was declared as the heir apparent to the Pallava throne probably due to the influence of the Rashtrakutas. As a crown prince he helped his father in the battle against the Pandyan king Srimara Srivallabha and also helped Varaguna II to reclaim the throne of the Pandyan kingdom. The Bahur plates of Nrpatungavarman[100] celebrate his victory over a confideracy of enemies, who were probably Chola Aditya I aided by the Kodumbalur chiefs on the bank of river Arichit (Arisil, branch of Kaveri) sometime before 877 A.D. From the Tiruttani copper plate grant[101] of the 9th regnal year of Aparajitavarman it is learnt that Kampavarman forcefully captured the Pallava throne from his younger brother Nrpatungavarman. Perhaps in the battle that ensured at Sripurambiyam, Kampavarman was also assisted by his son Aparajitavarman, who inturn had the support of the the Ganga ruler Prithvipati I and Chola king Aditya I. From the Udayendiram plates of Prithvipati I[102], of about 895 A.D., it is learnt that the Ganga ruler lost his life, while ensuring victory for his Pallava ally Aparajitavarman and this battle marked the end of the rule of Nrpatungavarman. He has two queens viz., Viramahadevi and Kadavan Madevi. It is interesting to note that in an inscription engraved on the wall of Tirukkodisvara temple at Tirukkodikkaval[103] (Thanjavur district), dated in the 22nd regnal year of the king, the queen Viramahadeviar was refered to as performing the hiranyagarbha and tulabhara ceremonies. Another inscription[104] engraved on a pillar in the ardhamandapa of the Virattanesvara temple at Tiruvadi (Cuddalore district), seems to mention the name of the queen as donor. His reign saw the excavation of the rock-cut temple at Narttamalai by the Muttaraiyar chief Sattan Paliyili, son of Videlvidugu Muttarayan[105].
The elder brother of Nrpatungavarman, Kampavarman ruled for nearly thirty years (circa 869 A.D. -901A.D.). Probably in the beginning, he ruled simultaneously with his younger brother Nrpatungavarman and later on as indicated in the Tiruttani plates of Aparajitavarman, he dislodged his brother from the throne. Yet from the simultaneous availability of inscriptions of both the rulers, it seems that Nrpatungavarman was treated liberally and perhaps even allowed him to rule a part of the kingdom. It is most probable that Kampavarman also appointed his son Aparajitavarman as a co-regent very early during his own life time. An inscription from Mallam[106] in the Gudur taluk of Nellore district may indicate the northern limit of the Pallava kingdom during his rule. During his reign was built a temple for Isvara[107] and Narayana-bhatarkar[108] at Cholapuram and a Vishnu temple at Kavantandalam[109].
Aparajitavarman (circa 895 A.D. -913 A.D.), the last ruler of the Pallava dynasty is found mentioned for the first time as a donar in an inscription in the Vaikunthaperumal temple at Uttiramerur[110] dated in the15th regnal year of his father Kampavarman. From the Tiruttani copper plate grant[111] of the 9th regnal year of Aparajitavarman it is known that he was a son of Kampavarman through a Ganga princess Vijaya. The same charter mentions that Aparajita conquered the Banas, captured Karanai the city of the Pandyas and defeated the Chola at Chirrarur. Perhaps the Chola king defeated was Aditya I, the Pandya ruler was Varaguna II and the Bana chief was Paranjaya[112]. As a result of this defeat, Aditya I changed his tactics and supported Aparajitavarman in the battle against Nrpatungavarman. It is possible that in recognition of his service Aditya I was also allowed to keep some of the territories he gained in the battle. But soonafter, the activites of Aditya I and his son Parantaka began to worry Aparajita. In order to regain his power and prestige he engaged in a battle against Aditya I in about 913 A.D., in which he was killed. From his Tiruttani plates, he is known as a great devotee of Subrahmanya enshrined in the temple atop the hill of Tiruttani and also gifted the villages Pudur and Melirujeru as devadana brahmadeya. His period witnessed the construction of the Sencadi-Isar (Siva) temple at Tiruttani.[113]
Regarding the victory achieved by Aditya Chola I, the Tiruvalangadu plates[114] mockingly records the historical event that, the Chola king had conquered the Pallavas, even though its king was named as Aparajita i.e. the one who cannot be defeated.
In the words of Mahalingam,
“...That brought an end of the nearly six centuries of Pallava rule in Tondaimandalam and the adjoining areas. The entire Pallava territory was annexed with the Chola kingdom and this put the deathknell to the already contracting Pallava hegemony and the long line of the able rulers disappeared”[115].
Footnotes and references:
[1]:
Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XXVI, pp. 137–143.
[3]:
Mys. Arch. Rep, 1938, pp. 80ff.
[4]:
[5]:
Transactions of the Archaeological Society of South India, 1958–59, pp. 40–83.
[6]:
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. II, pp. 342 ff. and plate.
[7]:
Journal of Indian History, Vol. XIII, pp. 733 -748.
[8]:
Indian Antiquary, Vol. XIX, 17 and 19.
[9]:
Epigraphia Carnatica, VI, Cm.50.
[10]:
Known from the Udayendiram plates of Nandivarman II, Epigraphia Indica, Vol. III, pp. 142– 147.
[11]:
Jouvieu Dubreuil, op.cit., p. 35.
[12]:
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. XII, nos. 8, 13 and 14.
[13]:
Ibid., Vol. VI, no. 595.
[14]:
Ibid., Vol. II, no. 73.
[17]:
Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy no. 38 of 1888.
[20]:
Epigraphia Indica, Vol. VI, pp. 6–11.
[21]:
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. I, no. 151.
[22]:
Ibid., Vol. XI, part I.
[23]:
Ibid.,Vol. II, no. 74.
[24]:
Ibid., Vol. II, part V, no. 98.
[25]:
R. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas of Kanchi, Madras, 1928, Appendix–B, The Mahavamsa, Chapter XLVII, pp. 215ff.
[26]:
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. II, no. 73 and plate.
[27]:
Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XXVII, pp. 59–62 and plate.
[28]:
Ibid., Vol. IX, pp. 98–102.
[29]:
Indian Antiquary, Vol. VII, pp. 219 ff.
[30]:
Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XXVII, pp. 115–119.
[31]:
Ibid., Vol. X, pp. 100–106.
[32]:
Thomos Watters, op.cit., p. 227.
[33]:
Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XVII, pp. 340–344.
[34]:
Ibid., Vol. XXXII, pp. 91–98.
[35]:
Mys. Arch. Rep., 1939, p. 133.
[36]:
Ibid., 1925, pp. 85–89 and plates.
[37]:
Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol. III, Md. 113 and plates.
[38]:
Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XXXIII, pp. 91–98.
[39]:
Ibid., Vol. XVII, pp. 340–344.
[40]:
Ibid., Vol. XXXII, pp. 199–200.
[41]:
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. I, no. 25.
[42]:
C. Minakshi, The Historical Sculptures in the Vaikunthaperumal temple at Kanchipuram, New Delhi, 1941, p. 53, note 6.
[43]:
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. I, no. 29.
[44]:
Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, no. 368 of 1908.
[45]:
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. I, no. 29.
[46]:
K. A. Nilakantha Sastri, Foreign Notices of South India, Chennai, Reprint 2001, pp. 16 and 116–117.
[47]:
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. II, p. 357.
[48]:
Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 15, 17 and 18.
[49]:
Ibid., Vol. I, no. 29.
[50]:
Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, No. B 360 of 1954–55.
[51]:
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. I, no. 27.
[52]:
[53]:
Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol. VIII, NR 35.
[54]:
T. N. Subrahmanyan, op. cit., pp. 107–140.
[55]:
Epigraphia Indica, Vol. VI, pp. 49–53.
[56]:
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. II, no. 73 and plate.
[57]:
Ibid., Vol. IV, no. 135 and plate; C. Minakshi, op.cit., pp. 54–55.
[58]:
Epigraphia Indica, Vol. V, pp. 49–53.
[59]:
Ibid., Vol. IX, pp. 205 ff.
[60]:
Ibid., Vol. III, p. 359.
[61]:
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. I, no. 124 and Vol. V, no. 54 (Appendix).
[62]:
Indian Antiquary, Vol. VIII, p. 23 ff.
[63]:
Epigraphia Indica, Vol. IV, p. 334ff.
[64]:
Ibid., Vol. IX, p.24ff.
[65]:
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. II, no. 74; Indian Antiquary, Vol. VIII, pp. 273 ff.
[66]:
R. Gopalan, refers Sem. Tam., Vol. XXII, pp. 10–11, for identifying the place Nimbavana with Veppangadu, Chutavana with Kovilur and Sankaragrama with Sankaranarkudikadu, in Thanjavur district. He further identifies the place Nelur with Nellore in Andhra Pradesh, (History of the Pallavas of Kanchi, Madaras, 1928, p. 125–126).
[67]:
Identified with the Eastern Chalukyan king Vishnuvardhana III, (R. Gopalan, History of the Pallavas of Kanchi, Madaras, 1928, p. 125).
[68]:
Transactions of the Archaeological Society of South India, 1959–60, pp. 17–27.
[69]:
T. V. Mahalingam, op.cit., p. lxiii and c.
[70]:
K. V. Ramesh, A History of South Kanara from earliest times to the fall of Vijayanagara, Dharwad, 1970, pp. 66–67.
[71]:
Tandantottam plates of Nandivarman II, South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. II, no. 99, verse 6.
[72]:
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. IV, no. 827.
[73]:
Ibid., Vol. VI, no. 333.
[74]:
Ibid., Vol. II, part V, no. 98.
[75]:
Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society SAHER, Vol. XIV, pp. 81 ff.
[76]:
Velurpalaiyam plates of Nandivarman III, South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. II, part V, no. 98.
[77]:
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. XII, no. 43.
[78]:
Ibid., Vol. XII, no. 42.
[79]:
Ibid., Vol. XII, no. 44.
[80]:
Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy no. 226 of 1903.
[81]:
Nandikkalambakkam, verses 28, 33, 38, 49, 52, 53, 71, 75, 79, 80, 85, 86 and 96; Tellaru was identified by R. Gopalan with the village of the same name, in Vandavasi taluk., (op.cit., p. 137).
[82]:
Ibid., verses 2, 35 and 84.
[83]:
Nandikkalambakkam, verse 31.
[84]:
Ibid., verse 23.
[85]:
Ibid., verse 61.
[86]:
Ibid., verse, 55.
[87]:
Ibid., verse 27.
[88]:
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. XII, no. 49 and fn. 4.
[89]:
Ibid., Vol. V, no. 609.
[90]:
Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, no. 229 of 1903
[91]:
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. VII, no. 924.
[92]:
Ibid., Vol. VI, no. 447.
[93]:
Ibid., Vol. III, p. 449.
[94]:
Ibid., Vol. II, pp. 513–547.
[95]:
Inscriptional reference about the activities of Seuna cavalry is found in a hero-stone inscription from Sennivayakkal in Lalgudi taluk, Tiruchirappalli district, dated in the 21st regnal year of the king ‘Tellarrerinda’ Nandipottaraiyar, (South Indian Inscriptions, vol. XII, no. 56).
[96]:
Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 71-2.
[97]:
Ibid., Vol. IV, pp. 180 ff.
[98]:
Andhra Pradesh Government Archaeological Series, Vol. III, pp. 3–76.
[99]:
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. XII, no. 47.
Epigraphia Indica, Vol.XVII, pp. 5–15.
R. Nagaswami, Thiruttani and Velanjeri copper plates, Madras, 1979, pp. 5–9.
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. II, p. 384, verse 18.
The inscription mentions it as a copy of an old stone, which being useless was discarded, (South Indian Inscriptions, vol. XII, no. 74).
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. XII, no. 73.
Ibid., Vol. XII, no. 63.
Ibid., Vol. XII, no.106.
Epigraphia Indica, Vol. VII, no. 26A, p. 193.
Ibid., Vol. VII, no. 26 B, pp. 193–194.
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. VII, nos. 420 and 422.
Ibid. ¸Vol. VI, no. 314.
R. Nagaswami, op.cit., pp. 5–7.
Ibid., p. 7.
South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. XII, no. 93.
Ibid., Vol. III, Part III, no. 205, v. 49.
T. V. Mahalingam, op.cit., p. lxxiii.