The Pallavas of the Prakrit and Sanskrit charters

The earliest known king of the Pallava dynasty is Simhavarman I (circa 295 A.D. -330 A.D.), as known from a stone inscription from Manchikallu in Palanadu taluk, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh^[1]. Regarding his role in the supplanting of the Ikshvakus, there are different opinions. Based on the provenance of the inscription near Vijayapuri, the capital city of the Ikshvakus, D. C. Sircar^[2] credits Simhavarman I for the final destruction of the Ikshvaku dynasty, along with its capital city and the many Buddhist establishments about the end of the 3^rd century A.D. and beginning of the 4^th century A.D. However T. V. Mahalingam^[3] argues that Simhavarman perhaps visited the region as part of his initial campaigns against Ikshvakus and made some propitiatory ceremonies at the temple of Jivasivasvamin at Kihatti. He further says that Simhavarman I by that time did not attain independent status, as no regal title is found in association with his name. He was only refered to as belonging to the Pallava family of Bharadvaja-gotra. Apart from that the inscription also does not mention any regnal year. These facts may indicate two things: that Simhavarman I could not exercise his powers independently in the region and at the same time he also did not recognize the authority of the Ikshvakus, the rulers of the region. So, he was not concerned to include the name of the Ikshavaku king in his record, which was a usual procedure followed by the sub-ordinate rulers. Perhaps, by that time the power of the Ikshvakus had decreased. He further prefers to consider that the Ikshvakus were completely overthrown by Sivaskandavarman I, the son and successor of Simhavarman I. He supports his argument on the basis of the Mayidavolu plates^[4], issued by Sivaskandavarman as a yuvamaharaja in the 10^th regnal year of a king (probably maharaja Simhavarman I). It records a royal order issued from Kanchipura by the Yuvamaharaja addressed to his official at Dhannakada (i.e. Dhanyakataka–modern Amaravati in Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh) conferring a gift of the village Viripura in Andhrapata as brahmadeya, with all exemptions to two brahmanas. Thus, this exercise of authority over the Amaravati region of Andhra Pradesh from Kanchipuram shows the extent of territorial authority of the Pallavas. This charter also hints at the possibility that Sivaskandavarman also participated in the war against the Ikshavakus as a yuvamaharaja during the reign of his father. Based on the Mayidavolu plates, it can be understood that the area over which Simhavarman I ruled would have covered the present districts of Bellary, Guntur, Krishna, Nellore and parts of the Kanchipuram district with Kanchipuram as the capital.

The Hirahadagalli plates^[5] issued during the 8^th regnal year of Sivaskandavarman I (circa 330 A.D. -350 A.D.) seems to hint at the imperial status attained by him after the overthrow of the Ikshvakus, as known from his title dharmamaharajadhiraja and by the performance of agnistoma, vajapeya and asvamedha sacrifices. During his period also the Pallava kingdom extended up to the river Krishna in the north as can be known from the location of the grant in Satahani-raththa (i.e. the territorial division Satavahana-rashtra) and probably extended up to the Arabian Sea in the west and Palaru in the south. During his period Mayurasarman of the Kadamba family seems to have established a new dynasty as suggested by the Talagunda inscription of Kaksuthavarman^[6].

T. V. Mahalingam based on the provenance of this inscription near the Kuntala region, which was ruled by the Kadambas, suggests that,

“The early Kadambas were probably feudatories of the Pallavas of the Prakrit charters”^[7].

At about circa 350 A.D. Samudragupta invaded Kanchi and defeated Vishnugopa^[8], who was probably the younger brother of Sivaskandavarman I. From the British museum plates of Charudevi^[9] it is learnt that yuvamaharaja Buddhavarman, the elder son and successor of Sivaskandavarman I predeceased his father. As the record was directly issued by the queen and addressed the officials of Kataka, it can be surmized that Charudevi acted as regent for her son Buddhyankura and governed over a part of the Pallava kingdom.

The next king to ascend the throne of Kanchipuram was Kumaravishnu I (circa 350 A.D. -370 A.D.), the younger son of Sivaskandavarman I and brother of Buddhavarman. The only known source of information about this king is from the Omgodu (I) grant^[10] of his great grandson Skandavarman III, which described him as the performer of asvamedha-yaga and confers on him the title maharaja.

The next ruler is Skandavarman II (circa 370 A.D. -385 A.D.), known by the epithet svaviryadhigatarajya in Omgodu (I)^[11] and as svabahubalarjjitorjjita in Uruvappalli^[12], Nedungaraya^[13] and Sakrepatna plates^[14]. These two titles mean that he acquired the kingdom by his own prowess and may suggest that he not only inherited the kingdom from his forefathers, but also tried to expand it by the policy of digvijaya.

From the Omgodu (I), Uruvappalli, Nedungaraya, Vesanta^[15], Sakrepatna, Omgodu (II)^[16] Pikira^[17], Mangalur^[18] and Vilavetti^[19] plates it is known that Skandavarman II had a son named Viravarman, who succeeded to the throne and was praised with many titles like pratapopannata-rajamandalasya (i.e. the victor in many battles and the subduer of a circle of kings), vasudhatalaikavirasya, prithvitalaikavirasya, etc.

The son and successor of Viravarman, Skandavarman III (circa 400 A.D. -436 A.D.) is described in the Vesanta and Sakrepatna grants of his son Simhavarman III as having conquered the whole of Dakshinapatha and the Mangalur grant describes him as samarasatakarana, i.e, one who fought hundreds of battles. He is also mentioned in the copper-plate charters from Omgodu (I), Vilavetti, Uruvappalli, Nedungaraya, Omgodu (II) and Pikira issued by his successors. Skandavarman III interfered into the internal politics of his contemporaries viz., the Kadamba and the Gangas. He helped Krishnavarman I, against his step-brother, the Kadamba king Santivarman, to establish an independent kingdom at Triparvata. The Udayendiram plate of Prithvipati II^[20] mentions the consecration of Konganivarman, the founder of the Ganga dynasty by a Pallava ruler (circa 400 A.D.), who could probably be Skandavarman III.

Skandavarman III was succeeded by his eldest son Simhavarman II (circa 436 A.D. -477 A.D.) He like his father meddled with the Kadambas and the Gangas. His Kadamba contemporaries were Santivarman and his son Mrigesavarman of the Banavasi branch and Krishnavarman I and Vishnuvarman of the Triparvata branch. The Hebbal grant of Vishnuvarman^[21] states that he was crowned by both Santivarman of the Banavasi branch and a Pallava king, probably Simhvarman< II. This event is due to the decision taken by Krishnavarman I to choose his younger son Devavarman to throne. Thereby his eldest son Vishnuvarman issued from a Kaikeya princess sought the support of the Pallavas and the Kaikeyas. Santivarman of the Banavasi branch who was so far kept aloof by his step-brother Krishnavarman I, also joined in as a diplomatic move against the Triparvata branch. However, in spite of this short diplomatic peaceful move by the Banavasi branch of the Kadambas, their enimity towards the Pallavas and Triparvata branch continued. This is confirmed from the Halsi plates of Mrigesavarman^[22], the son and successor of Santivarman, which show that the latter had conflicts with the Gangas as well as the Pallavas. However, he made peace with the Kaikeyas and entered into an matrimonial alliance by marrying their princess named Prabhavati.

From the Penukonda plates of the Ganga ruler Madhava II^[23], it is known that the Pallava king Simhavarman II made diplomatic move towards the Gangas and helped Aryavarman, the father of Madhava II to ascend the throne and personally anointed him as the ruler. All these led to successive wars among the neighboring kingdoms of the Pallavas, Kadambas, Gangas and Kaikeyas. It is interesting to note that at this stage, the war is not fought for control over territory, but to assert ones superior military strength by supporting the cause of one prince or the other for ascending the throne.

During the reign of Simhavarman II, a collateral branch of the Pallavas was founded in the Telugu country under the governorship of his younger brother yuvamaharaja Vishnugopavarman, mainly to serve the effective purpose of military activities of the parent kingdom. From the provenance of the charters issued by him and his sucessors, it can be surmized that the collateral branch ruled over a region, which comprised the modern Kandukur, Kovur and Atmakur taluks in Nellore district, Bapatla taluk in Guntur district and Ongole taluk in Ongole district of Andhra Pradesh^[24]. From the Omgodu (II), Pikira, Mangalur and Vilavetti charters, which were issued during the regnal year of Simhavarman, the son and successor of yuvamaharaja Vishnugopavarman, it can be surmized that the collateral branch began to rule independently from the main line at Kanchipuram. The next ruler of this branch is Dharmamaharaja Vijaya Vishnugopavarman, the son of Simhavarman, as known from his Chura copper plate grant^[25], which was issued from the adhisthana of Palatkada. T.V. Mahalingam^[26] identifies this place with the village Palukuru in the Kandukuru taluk of the Nellore district and suggests that it might be the ancient Palakkada. After Vishnugopavarman, nothing is known regarding this collateral branch, till the time of Simhavarman III (circa 540 A.D. -550 A.D.) of the Pallankoyil plates^[27], who probably belonged to this collateral branch and succeeded Kumaravishnu III of the main line on the throne of Kanchipuram.

The next ruler to ascend the throne of Kanchipuram was Skandavarman IV (circa 477 A.D. -485 A.D.), the son of Simhavarman II. From the Penukonda plates of Madhava II^[28], it is known that Skandavarman IV followed the diplomatic steps of his father and caused the anointement of Simhavarman alias Madhava II, the son of Aryavarman to the Ganga throne. However it seems that Skandavarman faced defeat at the hands of Ravivarman, the Kadamba ruler of Banavasi when he went in support of Vishnuvarman of the Triparvata branch of Kadambas.

Skandavarman IV was succeeded by his elder son Nandivarman I (circa 485 A.D.-520 A.D.). Verse 9 of the Velurpalayam plates of Nandivarman III^[29] makes it known that he brought under control a powerful Naga chieftain called Drstivisa. We know about the existence of a Naga family ruling over the Bellary district from an inscription of 11^th century A.D.^[30] It is most probable that Nandivarman I was helping the Krishnavarman II, the Kadamba king of Triparvata branch in the war againt the Naga chieftain, who rebelled against him.

Next in the Pallava line is seen a quick succession of three kings namely Kumaravishnu II, the younger son of Skandavarman IV, Buddhavarman, the son of Kumaravishnu II and Kumaravishnu III, the son and successor of Buddhavarman. All the three king appear to have ruled for a short span of time between circa 520 A.D.-540 A.D. The Velurpalayam plates of Nandivarman III^[31] credits Kumaravishnu II and his son Buddhavarman to have regained Kanchi from the Telugu -Cholas, who seem to have defeated the Pallavas and occupied Kanchi for sometime during the early days of the reign of Kumaravishnu II. The same plates praises Buddhavarman as chola-sainyarnnava-badabagnih (the submarine fire to the ocean of the army of the Cholas). The last of the Pallava rulers known from the Prakrit and Sanskrit charters was Kumaravishnu III, the son and successor of Buddhavarman.

The next ruler of the Pallava throne was Simhavarman III (circa 540 A.D. -550 A.D.) of the Pallankoyil plates, whose descendants commenced and attained great importance and a new dimension. From the accession of Simhavarman III, a clearer account of the history of the Pallavas is possible.

Regarding the political atmosphere that prevailed during the reign of the later imperial Pallavas, Prof. K. A. Nilakantha Sastri says that,

“For a period of 300 years from the middle of the 6^th century A.D. the history of South India is virtually the story of mutual conflict among the three powers: the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madurai”^[32].

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Ibid., Vol. XXXII, p. 87–90.

[2]:

Ibid., p. 89.

[3]:

T. V. Mahalingam, op.cit. p. xxxiii and lxxix–lxxx.

[4]:

Epigraphia Indica,Vol. VI, pp. 84–89.

[5]:

Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 2–10.

[6]:

Ibid., Vol. VIII, pp. 24–36.

[7]:

T. V. Mahalingam, op.cit. p. lxxx.

[8]:

Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. III (Revised), pp. 203ff.

[9]:

Epigraphia Indica, Vol. VIII, pp. 143–146.

[10]:

Ibid., Vol. XV, p. 249.

[11]:

Ibid., Vol. XV, pp. 249–252 and plate.

[12]:

Indian Antiquary, Vol. V, no. 12, pp. 50–53.

[13]:

Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, no. A 2 of 1941–42.

[14]:

Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XXXVIII, pp. 99–105.

[15]:

N. Ramesan, “The Vesanta Grant of Pallava Simhavarman”, in Transactions of the Archaeological Society of South India 1960–62, pp. 85–96.

[16]:

Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XV, pp. 252 ff.

[17]:

Ibid., Vol. VIII, pp. 159–163.

[18]:

Indian Antiquary, Vol. V, pp. 154–157.

[19]:

Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XXVI, pp. 296–303.

[20]:

South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. II, pp. 333-87, verse 13.

[21]:

Mys. Arch. Rep., 1926, no. 118, p. 98.

[22]:

Indian Antiquary, Vol. VI, pp. 24–25.

[23]:

Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XIV, pp. 331–340.

[24]:

T. V. Mahalingam, op.cit., p. xxxix.

[25]:

Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XXIV, pp. 137–143.

[26]:

T. V. Mahalingam, op.cit., p. 85, fn. 1.

[27]:

Transactions of the Archaeological Society of South India, 1958–59, pp. 41–83.

[28]:

Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XIV, pp. 331–340.

[29]:

Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, no. A 24 of 1911; South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. II, pp. 507–510.

[30]:

Ibid., no. 198 of 1913. It refers to a Drstivisa in whose family a Sinda chieftain was born.

[31]:

Ibid., no. A 24 of 1911; South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. II, pp. 507–10.

[32]:

K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, op.cit. p. 146.