Topography, Geography and Geology of the Region (Tondaimandalam)

In order to understand the history and culture of any region it is important to know the physical, geographical and geological features, as they play an important role in influencing the course of not only political history but also the cultural traits of the region, which in turn is visually expressed in the form of sculpture, painting and architecture. Very often we can see the artistic creations inspired by the natural elements such as the hills, rivers, plains, deserts, etc., and living beings like flora and fauna apart from the day to day activities of the humans. The sculptural creation is also indirectly affected by the quantity and quality of stone available in the region.

The region ruled by the Pallavas called in the inscriptions as Tondaimandalam comprised of the erstwhile Chengalpattu, North Arcot and South Arcot districts in Tamil Nadu and Chittoor and Nellore districts in Andhra Pradesh. The region is marked sporadically by low raise hills, hill-locks, rivers, streams, rivulets and dotted by lakes as well. In the case of lakes it is interesting to take note that during this period in addition to the naturally formed ones, the Pallava kings, chieftains, courtesans and even normal affluent people caused to dig lakes for the purpose of irrigation^[1]. The Tondaimandalam region is bounded by the Bay of Bengal in the east; the districts of Nagapattinam, Ariyalur, Perumbalur in the south; Salem, Dharmapuri, Krishnagiri, the state of Karnataka in the west and Anantapur, Cuddapah, Prakasam of Andhar Pradesh in the north.

The erstwhile Chengalpattu district comprising the present day districts of Kanchipuram, Tiruvallur and parts of Chennai lies between 12° 15' and 13° 28' north latitudes and 79° 28' and 80° 20' east longitudes. It has the Bay of Bengal as the eastern border with a coastal line of 182 kms and total geographical area of 7869.16 sq. kms. Topographically the district is a featureless peneplain with residual hills extending parallel to the coast ranging in elevation between 16 and 230 metres. Geographically the area can be divided into the plains, lagoons, hilly regions, forests, coastal belt, rivers, basins, lakes and tanks. The coastal region of the district is mostly flat and dreary but in the other parts it is undulating and even hilly in some places like in the Tiruttani taluk, where a number of hillocks of small elevation the St. Thomas Mount are found. The north -west and south -west parts of the district are hilly, which forms part of the Eastern Ghat. Most of the hills and hillocks are rocky and no verdant vegetation is seen in the slopes of these hills. These Quartzitic hills and hillocks, rarely exceeding the elevation of 700 feet, served as the canvas for the sculptors of Pallava period, wherein their workmanship concentrated.

The district has non-perennial and monsoon fed rivers like Palar, Cheyyar, Cooum, Kortalaiyar, Arniar, Kiliar, Kallar, Ongur, Nandi as well as many rivulets and lakes. Consequently prominent lakes like Chembarambakkam, Madurantakam, Uttiramerur, Thenneri, Sriperumpudur, Thinnanur, Sholavaram, Puzhal, Poondi, Pallavankulam, Thamal and Palur dotting the district fulfilled the water requirement. The flora of the district can be broadly grouped under five major types: Scrub jungles, Psammophytic, Halophytic, Mangrove and Aquatic vegetation. The fauna of the region can be divided into Herpotofauna, Aves, Mammals, fresh and brackish water fishes.

The southern and south-eastern part of the district consists of Archaean group of rocks formed during the Precambrian age, represented by Charnockites, Migmatites, Gneisses, Dolerite, pink and grey Granites and Pegmatites. The Archaean group is overlain by Talchaen rocks represented by boulder beds, sandstone of varied hues, siltstones, shales and rhythmite. Overlaying them are sediments formed out of these rocks. Mineral resources like Clay, Kankery limestone, Quartzite Silica, Sand and other minor minerals are found^[2].

Cuddalore and Villupuram districts form part of the erstwhile South Arcot district. Of these the Cuddalore district is flat for the most part and lies between 11^o 11' and 12^o 35' North Latitude and East Longitude 78^o 38' and 80^o. It spreads over an area of 3678 sq.kms and contains number of rivers and lakes like Gadilam, Pennar, Vellar, Veeranam, Perumal-eri and Wellington Lake.

Villupuram District lying between 11^o 38' 25" north and 12^o 20' 44" south; 78^o 15' 00" west and 79^o 42' 55" east with an area of 7194 Sq. Km., has the Kalrayan Hills in the northern part of the district representing a continuous range of hills covered with some thorny forests and vegetation. Among the hills the most beautiful lies in the Gingee Hills. Besides, there are isolated hills namely Tayadurgam and Perumukkal. The rivers in the district are not perennial. The Ponnaiyar is the principal river and the other important rivers are Komugi, Manimuktha, Gadilam, Malattar, Sankaraparani and Varaganathi. According to the old district gazetteer, the South Arcot region consists of metamorphic crystalline rocks of Archaean age, belonging to Charnockite -Khondalite group and intrusive and extrusive rocks, namely Gabbro, Anorthosite, Puroxite and Dolerite. Considerable amount of laterite, building stones and lime are also found. Popular fauna, are Tigers, Cheetahs, Elephants, Bears, Sambar, Spotted deer, Antelopes, Hyaenas, Wild-dogs, Pigs and Porcupines^[3].

Tiruvannamalai and Vellore districts formed part of the erstwhile North Arcot district. Of these, the former lies between 11° 55' and 13° 15' North latitude; 78° 20' and 79° 50' East longitude and spreads over 6191 sq.kms, where as the latter lies between 12^o 15’ and 13^o 15’ North Latitude; 78^o 20’ and 79^o 50’ East Longitude, having an area of 6077 sq.km. The district is intersected by number of rivers and streams like, Palar, Cheyar Malattar, Koundinya, Goddar, Pambar, Agaram-aru, Ponnai, Kallar and Naga Nadi. Major hills are the Eastern Ghats, Javadi, Yelagiri and Swamimalai. The old district gazetteer mentions that North Arcot is rich in tanks in the Madras Presidency. The geological formation of the district, largely consists of rocks of Gneiss of metamorphic series and intervening bands of trap rock occurring in the form of dykes. However the north-eastern part of the district contains Conglomerates, Sandstones, Quartzite, Limestone and volcanic rocks. The Nagari hill beds are rich in grantite and gneiss intervening with trap dykes and viens of Serpentine. The hills are also rich in Sandstone of various hues. Bison, Tiger and Cheetah are found in Javadi hills. Hayena, Sambar, Spotted deer, Barking deer, Antelope, Wild pig and Porcupines are commonly found in forests. Similarly are found Pea-fowl, Jungle-fowl and other local birds^[4].

Chittoor district, in Andhra Pradesh, situated between 12^o 47' and 14^o 08' north latitude and 78^o 03’ and 79^o 55’ east longitude, shares its eastern border with Tiruvallur district, which formed one of the principal areas of the Pallava territory. The landscape of the district can be divided into two divisions, the mountainous plateau and the plains. The Eastern Ghats, the Nagari and the Horsley hills form the main mountains of this district. Important rivers of this region are Papaghni, Puncha, Koundinya, Palar, Ponne, Arani, Swarnamukhi, Bahuda, Kalyani and Kusasthali. More than three-fourths of this district is occupied by rocks of Archaean period, which are found in different forms like Schists, Granite Gneisses, Quartzite, Shale, Slates, Limestone and also as minerals of Quarts, Feldspar, Hornblende, etc. Granite is used as the best medium of building material and is available in different shades of pink, grey and black. Shale and Slate are used for the purpose of sharpening the tools. The district is rich in tamarind trees and various species of flora^[5].

Nellore district in Andhra Pradesh, lying between 13^o 25' and 15^o 55' north latitude; 79^o 9' and 89^o 14' east longitude, is to the east of the Coramandal coast of Tamilnadu. It shares its southern border with the districts of Kanchipuram and Tiruvallur, the core area of Pallava hegemony. The whole district is generally flat and is of low elevation. The coastal taluks are more fertile than those lying under the Eastern Ghats. The principal mountain ranges are Eastern Ghats locally known as the ‘Vellikondas’and the Udayagiri Doorg. The major rivers are Pennar, Kandelru, Swarnamukhi, Musi, Paleru and Manneru. The greater part of the district is underlain by Gneisses and Schists with several ridges of Quartzite and basic igneous rocks. The coastal belt is composed of a laterite-capped band of sandstone, and of recent deposits of alluvium and sand. The climate is generally dry and and the annual mean humidity is 75%.

The plains contain overly the scrub jungle and large trees like Margosa (Azadirachta indica), different species of the Ficus (indica, Tsiela, bengalensis, religiosa), the Tamarind (Tamarindus indica), the Acacias and the Mango (Magnefera indica) are seen only near the villages. However, the Velikonda hills sustain trees of large size. Of the fauna, the Nellore breed of cattle is famous both for its physical strength and exquisite appearance. They have been exported to Java, Malay straits, Sumatra, Jamaica and even as far as Argentine. Tiger, Panther, Cheetah, Hayena, Sambhur, Bear, Antelope, Pigs, Bison are the common wild animals. Snipe, duck and wild fowl are plentiful. Black buck, Bustard, Wild ducks, Teal and Brahmani ducks are occasionally met. Green Pigeon, Sand grouse, Peafowl, Golden plovers are scarcely seen^[6].

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, 1898, no. 74; Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, 1934 -35, no. 233

[2]:

Gopalakrishnan, Gazetteers of India –Tamilnadu state –Kanchipuram and Tiruvallur Districts, Chennai, 2000, pp. 1–67.

[3]:

J. H. Garstin, A Manual of South Arcot District, Madras, 1878, pp. 173–177.

[4]:

Arthur F. Cox, A Manual of North Arcot District in the Presidency of Madras, Madras, 1881, pp. 1–11.

[5]:

N. Ramesan, Andhra Pradesh District Gazetteer –Chittoor District, Hyderabad, 1979, pp. 1–15.

[6]:

Gazetteer of the Nellore District, New Delhi, 1942, Reprint 2004, pp. 1–20.