Chapter 6 - Conclusion

In the preceding chapters an attempt has been made to bring out comprehensive account of the kingship in the early medieval India. it has been mentioned in the beginning of the study that the issue of kingship and state formation has emerged as one of the most discussed and confronted theme of debate in Indian historiography in recent decades. In recent past the various kinds of empirical research on early and especially early medieval Indian polity have not only influenced the research orientation of historical investigation but also have attracted the attentions of other disciplines like Anthropology, Religious Studies and Sociology as well.

In The ‘early-medieval’ period particularly in writings of the post independence era we can see the changes in two prominent constructs, in terms of ‘urban decay and large scale formation of states’ and ‘the pattern of shaping of regional societies’. It actually demonstrates the shaping of the territorial segments with regional identities of the future Indian subcontinent. It shows transition from early historical polity and society with the emergence of regional polities. Thus the term ‘early medieval’ suggests the evolution from the early historical period to medieval period and brings out the characteristics of continuity and change in the broad historical context. This viewpoint not only counters ‘timelessness’ and ‘changelessness’ it is also pose a response to stereotype transformation historiography of pre-modern Indian society.

Depending on this above standpoint the present study focused on the two imperial powers; the Gangas in the Mahanadi valley, and the Cholas in the Kaveri valley region, for the comparative study on the kingship of the both deltaic regions. The present study also proposed to deal with a comparative study of ‘kingship and polity’ in order to understand changes or development witnessed in the overall socio-economic formation of the two regions, in a historical perspective. In this task it is decided to make kingship itself as its vantage focal point to study the concept, function, and ideological foundations of kingship in early medieval Indian eastern coast.

The study of Indian kingship has traditionally been based on literary sources. As we discussed and analysed in chapter I, the pattern of secondary works related to the issues of origin and nature of kingship, from the sources like P.V. Kane, J.N. Gonda, L. Dumont, J.C. Heesterman and many others. The relationship of kingship with it sacerdotal domain has emerged in studies as the divinity of Indian kingship. This divinity and the nature and basis of authority, found in literature, are always posed as conundrum in the study of kingship.

The form and formation of kingship evolved out from the Dharmasastrs, Epics, Puranas and political treaties, are discussed in early studies. These issues are: the origin of kingship, its divine rights and hereditary nature, the image construction by the king and his court as protector and donor by dynastic traditions of his deeds, role of genealogical charts, caste and the position of the king, his chakravartin ideal, the hero ideal, etc.

It is found that in past studies the common trend was to focus on some particular period with a specific analytical concept. Though, the issue of kingship in the larger historical perspective and on the basis of cross cultural regional study, which has not been attempted on Indian Eastern Coast, it could offer some positive explorations by re-examining the contemporary source materials.

The political activities of the Mahanadi delta region, particularly in early medieval period, with its disparate geo-political locus have been discussed in Chapter two. This search helped me to understand how in different patterns of landscapes (river valleys or hilly areas) of historical kalinga, the centres of power evolved out. From the presence of large quantity of land grants and patronage the emergence and proliferation of several ruling lineages are clearly noticeable with the changing political configurations in all over Orissa. The foci of political bases of ruling lineages were being constantly redefined by the military campaigns and reversals. The process of vertical state formation is initiated and consolidated in two successive stages of military campaigns. In the first attempt, the Nandas and the Mauryans were responsible for the early historical period. By this time the coastal and central plain were subjugated. But the Guptas took the route of western hilly tract to invade up to the Deep South, which initiated the process of political activity in the western sub regions of Orissa.

For an elaborated view of the study of early medieval Orissan political activity the entire time frame of the period has been divided into three sub periods, to understand the gradual development of kingship and polity.

These are as follows:

1. Sub Period I: 300-600 A.D. (Local Lineage Formation)
2. Sub Period II: 600-900A.D. (Sub-Regional Phase)
3. Sub Period III: 900-1300 A.D. (The Regional Phase)

The detailed study of the Orissa inscriptions of early medieval period in three successive sub-periods clearly reveals that the nature of polity is exemplified by the rapidly shifting political compositions in various denominations. The rise of power of new lineages and emergence of newer foci of power, sometimes very short lived and tensed to disappear and displaced by the more powerful one. The frequency of displacement or subjugation by the older one and formation and gradual spreading of horizontal state formation is clearly visible in the above studied information from their grants. The constant reshaping of geo-political bases was being on the cost of war and its reversals.

It is also revealed from the study that the emergence of the sustained state-society formation was rooted in the tribal areas and the later stronger bases of dynastic control like the early and later Gangas, the Sailodbhabas, the Bhanjas, the Sulkis, and even the Bhauma-karas has a close tribal involvement in the beginning of their rule. Their rise to power from tribal society to monarchical state-society was largely possible through the gradual development of the local agricultural activity. The proliferation of the land grants proves that the land has become the centre of economic and political activity. Tribal chiefs of early period become the territorial ruling head of the newly emerged state-society. Their control over land and constant need to territorial expansion and its development is the key to the consolidation of the state formation process and establishment of political control over the core and peripheral regions.

The ruling chiefs of the early and later medieval period started assuming the title of Maharaja after the monarchical state formation. In the sub-regional phase, the multiplicity of emerging ruling lineages was found in all over Orissa. Some stronger bases of power emerged by incorporating the territory of the weaker lineages which witnessed in the higher epithets like Maharajadhiraja and subordinated status of the incipient kings. The ideology of kingship started expressing its inherent strength by Prasastis and the appearance of dynastic origin myths. In this period the Sailodbhvas, the Bhaumakaras were able to curve out relatively larger kingdoms. In the next phase of regional state formation, Somavamsis and the Imperial Gangas managed to subjugate greater parts of Orissa and become the regional power. The minor kingdoms still continued in the peripheral areas. The royal epithets of the Somavamsis and the Imperial Gangas are becoming more emphatic with their claims. In their grants we find elaborated genealogies and mythical prelude with eponymous originator of that dynasty.

In prasastis we find not only the achievements of the royal line but also the emphatic titles which provide valuable information on the hierarchical structure of the rulers and relationship with the other administrative officials. King’s association with the god is also visible from these grants, for which frequent donations were being made by the rulers and minor kings. Territorial claims coming-out with the titles, though not always indicative precisely the extent of their rule, but represent the ideology of kingship or the territorial ideal to which the kings of a particular period aspired.

These larger grants are also helpful in understanding the changing pattern of kingship from early to later phases. Epigraphs with representation of king’s mythical origin, association with local religious beliefs, his dynastic traditions, caste status, consecration rituals, Chakravartin ideal, king’s protector and donor image are seen as divine heroic figure. In the imperial phase, differentiating from early tribal elements kingship started associating closely with the Brahmanical pattern. This growth of kingship ultimately assimilated into Brahmanical monarchical pattern in the late or imperial phase with the introduction of royal temple construction. In the imperial phase the regional imperial powers were intensively involved in temple constructions. The Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneswar (mid-eleventh century A.D.), the Jagannatha temple at Puri (1135 A.D.), and Sun temple at Konarak (1238-58 A.D.) are some noteworthy examples of this royal policy. It demonstrates the power and strength of the state to his subjects and rivals. Simultaneously, it shows us the significant change in the royal dana system and the changing pattern of validation over his subordinates.

Kingship by doing this doubtlessly established their religious authority and also achieved vertical supremacy over his administrative apparatus. The construction of religious institutions and giving donations (royal patronage) for their expenses started in pre-imperial phase of the study but it gathered momentum in the imperial phase.

The fourth chapter evaluates the political scenario found in Kaveri delta, particularly in early medieval period in the same manner as we highlighted in the case of Mahanadi delta valley in three successive sub phases. From the first well lighted segment of the Tamil history reflected in the earliest literature of Sangam (the first three or four centuries A.D.) to the end of thirteen century A.D. The political activity in Deep South is generally represented as the constant rivalry between the dynasties basically for desire to control the economically more advanced Kaveri basin.

The study of Sangam poems reveals the existence of fivefold division of geosettings or landscapes called Tinai, found in the great work of Tamil grammar known as Tolkappiyam. From the very early times the whole Tamilkam was subdivided in between three ‘crowned kings’ of the Chera, Chola and Pandya lineages. Along with these lineages the names of several numbers of chieftains were also found in Sangam literature.

Early literary evidences, particularly Sangam and post-Samgam literatures, show that a form of government under a king may have originated from the pasture land. In Tamil language king is generally known as ‘Kon’ with a dual meaning of a ‘cowherd’. The similarity between the functions of a cowherd and those of a king is coming out as the leader or chief as Kon or Ko. He has to prove his ability at war for cattle lifting and in the time of peace. But not only in the pasture land, in the hilly and forest areas, hunting-chiefs, also had to establish their leadership over their relatable groups by proving his ability in hunting expedition.

The form of the government in early two phases was centrally monarchical. Gradually it establishes hereditary kingship in pre-imperial phase with several other features in imperial phase, as genealogies with its several palaces, royal court with court poetry, massive royal temples, state-officials, ceremonies. The coronation of a king becomes an important and impressive ceremony in this phase. The Chalukyas usually had done this ceremony at Pattadakal, the coronation stone. The Cholas have staged wise changes in this ceremony from time to time. These places were Tanjore, Gangaikondacholapuram, Chidambaram and sometimes Kancipuram.

Throughout the imperial phase the Cholas maintained their political hold over the entire Deep South along with their homeland the Kaveri river delta. They actually embraced the whole southern India, extended east to west from sea to sea. Spread of the Chola control twice in the north and firm hold on the Pandyamandalam perhaps motivated them to march farther south and capture Ceylon. In the eastward, they restored control over the whole of Bay of Bengal and parts of Malay Peninsula.

As the royal sacrifices, the Asvamedha sacrifice occurs only once in the inscription of Rajadhiraja. In the poems of Sangam age Vedic rituals were common but this imperial line in the third phase has shown more keenness with the policy of Dana or gifts in preference to sacrifice. To attain religious merit, offerings in terms of gift of land and resources, were numerously donated to the temples and various religious establishments. The temples, the brahmadeya villages, the Jain Pallis and Buddhist Viharas, all received donations in forms of royal patronages from the king and royal officials and rich.

The most important effort, kingship made in the early medieval period was the policy of temple construction. In the early Chola period, before Rajaraja I, we find mainly two types of temples were being constructed. The sepulchral monuments or the Pallipadai and monuments constructed on local sacred places.

From the time of imperial Cholas, kings started constructing temples of Siva, but with a new dimension added to it. In Rajarajesvaram temple at Thanjavur, the enshrined Linga is being named as Rajarajesvara, the same name of the reigning Chola monarch Rajaraja I. Through this Rajaraja made a drastic shift in his royal temple construction policy from their earlier Pallipadai or sepulchral model. Likewise Rajendra I constructed similar temple at Gangoikondacholapuram named after him as Rajendresvram temple. To establish the unparallel prestige of the Chola rule, to project his own greatness and generosity, he might have taken this path breaking building policy. South Indian scholars connected this practice with the apotheosis of Royal personages and further with the cult of Devaraja or God-king. Sometimes we find the images of the Queens and daughter of the Royal family restored in the temples and worshipped. Images of Kundavai, Rajaraja and his queen Lokamahadevi, queen of Gandaraditya, Rajendra and Chola-Mahadevi are some examples in this regard.

The nature of kingship and polity in its various facets has examined in the fifth chapter in a comparative manner. The epigraphic sources with court literatures elaborately depict how the office of kingship emerged and developed in these two regions. From early tribal elements kingship originated in this two regions and in later phase associated intrinsically with the Brahmanical character. The definition and redefinition of power relations in early medieval Orissa and Tamil Nadu was reflected in royal titles. Some of these titles clarify the territorial claims and contest for territory as well.

The present study shows that contemporary literatures and epigraphic sources (prasastis and meikirtis) pay great attention to the personal qualities of the king. Describing them as divine figure and associating attributes of Epic-Puranic or mythical idols. King’s protector and donor image are also carefully constructed as an admirable persona due to his benevolent and munificent deeds. Large scale donations to the Brahmanas and religious establishment were also a major aspect of these two regions. Thus, both these delta valleys clearly shows a gradual but different curve of growth of kingship ultimately assimilated into Brahmanical monarchical pattern in the late or imperial phase with the introduction and proliferation of temple construction.

Throughout the study, an attempt has been made to trace the genesis and evolution of the institution of kingship which depicted in regional source materials. It examined the way the royalty projected itself in the changing sociopolitical and economic structure of society, the way the royal image of hero-ship equated with kingship as donor and protector, carefully constructed in court literature and genealogies are also examined. To integrate the newer local groups how kingship intermingled with tribal cultural elements is evidently found in both the regions. The spread of Brahmanical ideology of kingship in both the regions took place at very early ages. The incorporation of local tribal elements must have intensified the later manifestation of imperial kingship to some extent in different form. The policy of temple construction, (different from its earlier version of sacrifices) pays great impetus to the formation of regional identity. What could be summarised that though the institution of kingship traced its allegiance from classical Brahmanical pattern in the course of time, the regional manifestations of kingship and polity particularly early medieval phase, took its own shape. It reflected through huge temple construction and in the changing policy of the system of Dana. The necessary validation of power and authority largely shifted from sacrifices to family temple concept. It could be termed as early medieval pattern of kingship.