Kingship in early Medieval India

by Sudip Narayan Maitra | 2015 | 67,940 words

This thesis is called: Kingship in early Medieval India: A comparative study of the Cholas and the Eastern Gangas. It represents a detailed empirical study of “kingship and polity” of two broad deltaic alluvial stretch of land on the “eastern coast”, namely ‘Mahanadi’ and ‘Kaveri’ delta. These were among the main centers of political and cultural a...

Part 2 - Kaveri Delta region: Sub Period I: 300-600 A.D.

[Full title: Kaveri Delta region: Sub Period I: 300-600 A.D. (Local Lineage Formation)]

The Age of Sangam and After

The first well lighted segment of the Tamil history centre around the Kaveri delta region reflected in the early Sangam literature (the first three or four century A.D.)[1] From that point onwards, the political history of pre-modern Deep South reveals certain recurrent patterns, which pervade all throughout the historical era.

One such feature is the constant rivalry between the ‘Two Kingdoms” or ‘Three Kingdoms” over the control of the basin[2] basically for the economic desire to control the more prosperous Kaveri basin.[3]

Started with the earliest recorded grammatical commentary called Kalaviyal-Urai, the tradition of literature first brought into light in an academy or third Sangam under the patronage of the Pandya kings. It is considered that before this third Sangam the earlier two Sangams were assembled in two other southern cities. But the literatures were believed to be destroyed by the inundation.[4] Sangam anthologies, mostly discovered in 19th centuries, mainly comprise eight anthologies or Ettu-Tokai of shorted poems and ten long songs or lays Pattu-Pattu.[5]

This early literature enshrined nearly 2400 poems of various lengths from 3 lines to 800 lines by about 473 poets. These were composed and sung in praise of the kings and chiefs, generally considered as the heroic court poetry. K. Kailashpathy[6] opines that these are mostly oral in nature until finally get compiled. It is also considered that the poems composed from the existing anthologies by mostly the literate poets known as Pulavar. The oral bardic compositions practised by the traditional bards known as Panar. The concentration of the poetic activity were mostly in southern Tamilnadu, and traditional poets were assembled there from the greater or old Tamilagam including present day Kerala and parts of Jaffna in Sri Lanka.[7]

The temporal-spatial scope of the region based studies of Indian past found in the historical texts are generally divided the land lying between Himalayas and Cape Comorin into three parts–Uttarapatha, Daksinapatha and Dravidadesa. This zonal segmentation has clear natural demarcation. Uttarapatha lying between the Himalayas and Vindhyas, Daksinapatha, the region between the Vindhyas and River Krsna and Dravidadesa, the region lying south of River Krsna. In modern scholarship India has been divided in to several ‘macro regions’ like Himalayan region, the great Indian plains, peninsular region, and the Indian coastal regions which are further subdivided into many ‘meso level’, first order and second order regions.[8]

It is not only the geo-physical realities of these regions but more importantly their influences upon human activities are essential to delineate the formation of historical cultural regions. This was recognised by the early Tamils. The Sangam heroic poetry, thematically sub-divided in to Akam (the interior), dealing with love in both Pre-marital and marital life and Puram (the exterior) dealing with martial and non-love themes (especially war). Each of these themes further subdivided into seven categories of which five are related to five distinct geosettings or landscapes called Tinai. (Kaikkilai -one sided love and Peruntinai-excessive love or indulgence neither are nor associated to any particular physiographic divisions) The rest five situations called Tinai of both love and non-love behavioural pattern. This was amply schematized in the great work of Tamil grammar known as Tolkappiyam.

Regions Akam-
Love Activity.
Behavioural Pattern.
Puram-
Military Activity.
Behavioural Pattern.
Kurinci
(Hills)
Sexual Union outside the Nuptial Bond. Vetci
(Capture and Recapture of Cattle).
Mullai
(Pastoral Areas)
Wife Patiently Waiting for the Husband. Vanci
(Guarding and Raiding of Settlements).
Marutam
(Riverine Agrarian Zone)
Wife Sulking over Husband’s Visiting the Harlot. Ulinai
(Guarding and Attacking the Fortress).
Neytal
(Littoral Region)
Agony of Separation. Tumpai
(Fight unto Finish)
Palai
(Desert or uncultivated Dry Land)
Separation Vakai
(Victory)


Early Tamil Polity:

The antiquity of the political activity in Kaveri valley is often traced with the advent of the Greek and Latin sources in around 3rd century B.C. Reference of some ports and ruling lineages found that are situated in the coastal areas in Kerala and Tamilnadu. Pliny and the author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea also referred the Chera and Pandya rulers of Madurai of 1st century B.C. Ptolemy mentions the territory of the Ay chief of southern Kerala around 140 A.D. few coins with tamil-brahmi legends found with the names of Chera and Pandya kings of 1st century BC.[9] This certainly shows despite some disjoints that a palatable continuity of political activity was there in Kaveri delta valley and adjoining areas started early from 3rd century B.C. onwards.

After the end of the Mauryan empire, the Satavahanas started dominating the both Deccan and the Deep South. They were challenged by the Sakas and Chedis of Orissa (Kharavela) and engaged into constant conflicts. Ultimately all these three vanished from the scene. The Satavahanas were considered by the most of the scholars as the establisher of the norm of political and socio-cultural matrixes of the whole south India.

Analytical studies on Sangam literature like Sivaraja Pillai, 1932,[10] K.A.N. Sastri, 1932 &1955,[11] K. Kailashpathy, 1968[12] and J.A. Marr, 1987,[13] suggested mostly subjective and fragmented political history of the Tamilkam found. The names found from mainly Puram genre of poems about 18 Chera, 12 Chola and 12 Pandyan kings (Ventar), with 48 chieftains or Vel. Out of these numbers K.A.N. Shastri suggested that a chronology of at most six generation of rulers might be constructed that lasted between 130 A.D. to 230 A.D.[14] In order to fix their chronology he took the contemporaneous existence of Chera king, Senguttuvan and the Srilankan king, Gajabahu (c. 173-195 A.D.), whose legendary deeds found in Silapatikaram (5th century A.D.). A couple of Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions of 2nd century A.D. found at Pugalur near Karur, also mentions three Chera kings, relevant with the last three rulers mentioned in Patirruppattu.[15] In Patirruppattu, we found Chera rulers were given more prominence than Pandya and Chola rulers. Names of Pandya kings found in Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions of Mangulam, suggested to be existed in second century B.C.

It is generally suggested that the whole Tamilkam was sub-divided in between three ‘crowned kings’[16] of the Chera, Chola and Pandya lineages. Along with these lineages several numbers of chieftains may be minor in nature according to their political condition occurred found cognizance with the ‘crowned kings’ in Sangam literature. Amongst the three ‘crowned kings’, the Cheras ruled the south western part of the Tamil land. The Cholas ruled the north eastern part and the Pandyas were of control over south eastern part of the Tamil land. Chronologically it may be assumed that the Cheras were the earliest as they found mentioned in the poems of Purananuru appears before the Pandyas and the Cholas.[17] Parimelakar, the most famous commentator of Kural, of eleventh century A.D., found mentioning these three ‘crowned kings’ had been ruling over the land from ‘the day of creation’,[18] it certainly shows their earliest control over the land. Ramayana, Mahabharata, Arthasastra and the Asokan edicts are also subsequently taken their existence well before the commencement of the Christian era.

Right from the beginning we found the institution of kingship was prevalent in this region. It is sometimes suggested that a form of government under a king may have originated from the pasture land or Mullai tracts. In Tamil language king is generally known as ‘Kon’ with a dual meaning of a ‘cowherd’. The resemblance in between the functions of a cowherd and those of a king is derived out as the leader or chief as Kon or Ko.[19] By proving his ability in war for cattle lifting and as well as in the time of peace he establishes his leadership over the other chiefs as Kon and Konmai (kingship). But not only in the pasture land, in the hilly and forest areas, hunting-chiefs, were also had to establish their leadership over their relatable groups by proving his ability in hunting expedition. In Malai-Nadu (hilly country) area of the Cheras, we found the royal emblem of the Chera, is the bow, the essential hunting weapon. It indicates the Chera kingship had its linkages with hunting expeditions. A king of the cowherd or a hunter-king found holding the Kol in their hands as a symbol of office.[20] The Cheras, which found early mention in the Purananuru than the Chola and Pandyan rulers, occurred with totemic emblem Pondai or Panai (the palm-leaf emblem of the Cheras) in Tolkappium.[21]

On the other hand, the Pandyan kingship was sprang early mention in the northern epics like the Ramayana-Kiskindha kanda and Mahabharata. Arthasastra refers only the Pandya Kavataham and Mathuram.[22] Megasthenes only mentions the land of the Pandaia, daughter of Heracles, but in Asokan edicts all the three ruling lineages are mentioned.[23]

The derivation of the Cheras, Cholas and the Pandyas were being suggested by various scholars differently. The Cheras, known with their epithets like Vanavar, Villavar, Kudavar, Kuttuvar, Poraiyar, and Malaiyar. According to Silapatikaram, V. Kanakasabhai translated Vanavar as the celestials and related it with Imaya Varamban and Vana Varamban, and suggested the Bengali origin of the Cheras.[24] Vanavar actually refers to the Devas supposed to be residing in the Devalokas, as the Cheras were the ruler of the high land of the Malainadu. Cheras were the Villavar as they were the hunters or bowman and Kudavar or Kuttuvar because they were the westerners.[25] Porai and Malai are the synonyms of mountain; naturally the Cheras were called Poraiyar, and Malaiyar.[26] An inscription of the Arnattamalai Hill, Pugalur, of first century A.D. found with three generations of Chera rulers Ko-Adan-cel-Irumporai, his son Perumkadungo and his son Ilamkadungo. The title used Ko-Adan and Irumporai definitely indicates the Chera lineages with usage of popular royal poets like Perumkadungo (who sang of the Palai region) and Ilamkadungo (who sang of the Marudam region) found in the Sangam works.[27] Archaeological findings, like gold and silver coins of the unearthed Roman factory at Aricamedu (Aruhan Medu, a Jaina mound, near Pondicherry), corroborate the literary evidences of the Sangam literature.

The Cholas were similarly known variously as Sennis, Sembiyans, Valavan and Killi. Sennis, means head or the leader. Sembiyan, possibly fragmented from Semmaiyan which might have links with the ancient tribe Sibi. Nilakantha Sastri suggested them as the descendants of the Sibi.[28] Valavan is one who rules over the fertile land, Valamai is fertility and easily could be associated with the Kaveri delta region. Killi, generally means chief and when Killi Valavan conjointly used with the Chola ruler it means the chief that is Valavan. Sometimes the Chola officers were also found with the title Killi, like Enadi Tirukkilli.[29] The Chola has been correlated with Cholam or millet but Chola land is primarily known for the wet crop paddy not for the dry crop millet. Later Devadatta Ramakrishna Bhandarkar’s association of the term Chola with Chera is also not been accepted by the scholars as utterly dissatisfactory.[30]

The Pandyas were known for the titles like Minavar, Kavuriyar, Panchavar, Tennar, Selyar, Marar, and Valudai. Minavar indicates the fisherman origin of the Pandyas, which later referred as ‘the kings with the fish-flag’. The fish emblem of the Pandyas was the ‘double crap’ resemblance with the Minakshi and Kamakshi, a pair of two craps: Minakanni and Kamakanni or the pair in union. Kavuriyar, Panchavar were associated later in establishing resemblance with the Mahabharata legend of Arjuna’s matrimonial adventure in Madurai. The Panchavar is meant to denote the fact that they were the rulers of Mullai, Kurinji, Marudam, Palai and Neytal tracts of land or the rulers of the five lands.[31] As the Cheras known as Kudavar or the westerners, Pandyas were known as Tennavan or the southerner. Selyar or Seliyan is meant to fertility or prosperity. Marar, or Maran is also refers the lord of the southern direction. The word Pandya is generally associated with the Pandus of Madhyadesa by famous grammarian Katyayana, which strongly rejected by N. Sastri on the basis of Tamil origin of Pandyan as Pandyam means ‘the toil service’ or the men of action.

It is generally believed that the Pandyas were the descendants from the moongod, the earliest indication of the divine origin of the kingship. The Chola were also mentioned as the descendants of the sun-god, sometimes described as the afterthought and a competitive title to enlarge their credibility over the Pandian Lunar ancestry.[32]

Apart from the three crowned monarchs in the Tamil land there were several numbers of less independent chieftains (Kurunila Mannarkal) with minor control over the land. Vincent A. Smith once mentioned these minor chiefs as around near about 120.[33] N. Sastri suggested that by this time, the entire Tamil land was sub-divided between the three crowned kings and a number of minor chieftains and politically these powers were either shows ‘allegiance or to fought for one or the other of these monarchs or else led an independent existence.’[34] According to him seven most liberal chieftains got important recognition for their patronage of literature and arts, mentioned as Vallals or Patrons.[35]

In this age the king considered to be at the centre of the administration apparatus. He was called as Ko, Mannan, Vendan, Korravan, Iraivan. Ko, means both King and God, the chief shepherd or the ‘Shepherd of the universe’ and Koyil means both the place of King as well as the place of God or temple at later times. Mannan, according to Puram, was one who earned the permanency.[36] While Vendan mentioned as much greater kingship in parallel to Mannan, Vendan was one who wore a crown–veyndon. Generally three crowned prince of the valley were Vendar, while other chieftains found with the title Mannar.[37] Korravan, was the victorious one. Korram in Tamil means valour that leads victory. Iraivan, or Irai also indicates the king in Iraimatchi with the expression of God in his prayer chapter. Sten Konow interestingly correlates the word Ravana, a sanscritized form of Tamil Iraivan.[38] Arasan is the most found and common term used to denote a king, a Tamil form of Rajan.

The earliest Chera ruler found mention in the Mahabharata was Udiyanjeral (c. 30 A.D.) for his great feeding of the both Kaurava and the Pandava armies in the Kurakhestra war and earned the title ‘Udiyanjeral of the great feeding’, the similar honorific title also found to be associated with the Pandyas and Cholas[39] His son Nedunjeral Adan abducted a victory against a local chieftain near Malabar Coast additionally captivating some of the Javana traders later released in lieu of heavy ransom. His greatest victory was against a confederacy of seven crown kings. This elevated his position to Adhiraja and thus he was called Imayavaramban, who had the Himalaya as his frontier and carved the Chera emblem of bow on the face of the great mountain.[40] The name of his centre found was Marandai. He with his enemy king both died in the war against his contemporary Chola monarch, after which both the deceased wife performed Sati.

Adan’s brother Kuttuvan conquered Kongu region and extended Chera power towards east. Adan was also managed to succeed against Adigaiman chieftain Anji of Tagadur and Nannan of north Malabar region in the Tulu country. Another son of Adan, called Senguttuvan (c. 180 A.D.), was highly praised by the famous poet Paranar of the Sangam age. His ‘Ten Tens’ (Pattupattu), and a song in the Purananuru, describes himself as the victorious against the chieftain of Mohur.[41] In this decad (Ten Tens’) also refers of Pattini cult, the worship of Kannaigai as the ideal wife. He also took a chance to interfere in the Chola war of succession, where one ultimately succeed to get the throne by the cost of nine princes’ life. Further Senguttuvan was mentioned that he faced a war against an Aryan ruler or chieftain and from where he brought the stone for making the image of Pattini. These events were more or less found echo in epic Silapatikaram also.[42] According to Sastri, the Chera rule was like a Kula-Sangha or family-estate where senior males enjoyed similar share and interests in the state affairs.[43] The other hero like figures mentioned in the decads of Ten Tens’ were mostly contemporaneous of Udiyanjeral. Anduvan and his son Selvakkadungo Vali Adan, were both praised for their valour and liberal character and also described as the performer of many Vedic sacrifices. We found two minor but contemporaneous chieftains were Ay and Pari. Ay was a patron of a Brahmana poet from Uraiur, and Pari was patronised another Brahmana named Kapilar.

Amongst several chieftains mentioned as vel, enjoyed control of Tamil country Ay was a prominent one, ruling near Podiya hill, the southernmost section of Western Ghats. Ptolemy made mention of one ‘Aioi’ enjoying control over Cape Comorin and Mount Bettigo. The patronising ruler of a Brahmin poet of Uraiur also mentioned in the name of Andiran mean hero in Sanskrit. He worshipped Siva to whom he allows a present of a fine cloth offered by a Naga chieftain Nila.[44] Pari was another vel and friend of poet Kapilar, well known for his heroism and generosity. He enjoyed control somewhere in the Pandya country nearby a hillock known as Kodungunram or Piranmalai. Another Chera prince Selvakkadungo Vali Adan, son of Anduvan, also eulogized by poet Kapilar as he possessed all the qualities of king Pari. Adan’s son named Perunjeral Irumporai, well known for the subjugation of the rebellious territory of Tagadur, modern Dharmapuri in Salem district, known as the centre of the Adigaiman chieftains.[45] A cousin of the conqueror of Tagadur, named Kudakko Ilanjeral Irumporai, found mention as the last Chera prince in Ten Tens’. He fought against the two great kings of the Chola (ruler of Potti) and the Pandyas. Mandaranjelan Irumporai (c. 210 A.D.) or the ‘Sey of the elephant eye’, finds mention as he regained his territory from his Pandya contemporary Nedunjeliyan.

Some mythical names and facts found in the legends of Sangam poems are equally important for this purpose. As mentioned earlier that the Cholas were claimed as the descendants from the sun[46] , which was repeated frequently in the long mythical genealogies found in later royal charters of the imperial line.[47] King Kantan, contemporaneous with Agastya and Parasurama, by devotion to Agastya he brought the river Kaveri into existence.[48] He ruled around Kakandi, Puhar and Kaveripumpattinam. Another legendary figure Tungeyilerinda-Todittot-Sembiyan, often worshipped as hero for demolishing of the flying fortress of the Asuras.[49] With all these the twine epics of Manimekhalai and Silapatikaram appeared with more legends like king of the bird-story, story of the calf and the prince, origin of the river Kaveri, and the institution of the festival to Indra.[50]

Amongst the Chola ruling family, Karikala or Karikalan,[51] the man with the charred leg (c. 190 A.D.) was the most prominent one, often cherished with another king Koccenganan. He is mentioned in a poem as the descendent of an anonymous king ‘who compelled the wind to serve his purpose when he sailed his ships on the wide ocean.’[52] N. Sastri suggested it as a possible reference of the early maritime activity of the Cholas. His father, Ilanjetcenni described as ‘of many beautiful chariots’. Puhar or the Kaveripumpattinam became central at the time of Karikala.[53] Another branch of the Chola lineages arose from the Uraiur in later times.

Poems in the Patinapalli and Pattuppattu or ‘Ten Idylls’, described Karikala’s early struggle of capture the throne of Kaveri-Pattinam. The well mentioned battle of Venni, modern Kovil Venni, 15 miles nearer to Tanjore, was described as his great achieving victory against eleven rulers including the Cheras and the Pandyas lost their control over their own territory. The battle of Venni thus marked as the turning point in the career of Karikala. He succeeded to destroy a strong confederacy formed against the Cholas.

In another battle, at Vahaipparandalai, the field of Vahai trees, Karikala managed to defeat the joint army of nine minor chiefs. The poet of Pattinapallai, described these victories as the north and west powers were compelled to come under the Chola rule.[54] Then he marched towards the southern Pandya rule and captured the hold of Pandya king Irungovel. He also prevented the migration of the people called Aruvalar of Aruvanad, the lower Pennar valley, to the north of Kaveri valley by providing them enticement for their sustenance. Sastri envisaged these victories as establishment of a hegemonic rule among the ‘Crown Kings’ of the Tamil country.[55]

The detailed references found in Pattinapalai, certainly proves the degree of commercial activity and importance of Kaveri-Pattinam port town. In addition Karikala subjugated the surrounding forest land and started building irrigational tanks which intensified the agricultural activity in that area. The poems also speak of the king as the follower of the Vedic religious practices and performance of sacrifices.[56] Gradually Karikala became the legendary figure in the later poems and iconic hero in the Silappatikaram and later imperial inscriptions and literary works of the 11th and 12th century.[57]

A contemporary ruler of Karikala, who ruled at Kanchipuram, was Tandaiman Ilandiraiyan, who found mentioned in poems of Pattinappalai and in one poem in ‘Ten Idylls”. In his own poems he celebrated the characteristic features of a king and his role in the promotion of good rule.[58]

Nedunjelian of Talaiyalanganam, North West of Tiruvalur in Tanjore districts, another Chola monarch, who came to ascend the throne in his early days and successfully faced the attacks of his neighbouring monarchs and five minor chieftains. In this battle he made captive the defeating Chera king ‘Sey of the elephant Eye’. He further annexed two division or Kurram of Milalai and Mutturu from Evvi and Velir chieftain. The Maduraikkanji holds strong evidence of his rule over the Madura and Pandyan territory.[59] He made the people of the Pearl-fishery coast as an important part of his royal army.

In the poems of Kovur Kilar and other poets, a major civil war was took place in between two reigning Chola prince of Nalangilli (known as Setcennai) and Nedungilli. A strong internal disturbance at the royal family of Uraiur took the life of poets also for spying.[60]

King Koccenganan, Sastri doubtlessly confirmed him as ‘latest, if not the last of the Cholas mentioned in Sangam literature’.[61] King Koccenganan also emerged as legendary figure like Karikala and mentioned in Chola copper plates of tenth and eleventh centuries.[62] Like Jataka stories of Buddhism, a spider birth of king Koccenganan in his previous life was first mentioned by Appar and found repetition in later sources like Tiruvalangadu plates of the reign of Rajendra Chola[63] . The Kalingattupparani and the Vikramasolan-ula carries more or less same legends resembles with the copper plates.[64]

What we find from this above discussion that the norm of government in Tamil land was monarchy and it was hereditary in most of the cases. Wars of succession in form of civil war were also not uncommon. Brahmanical conception of state or Rajya and its important parts were started visible right from this age. N. Sastri believes that Saptanga state system was known and accepted in this age.[65]

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Ibid. p.39

[2]:

K. A. Nilakantha Sastri, A History of South India, New Delhi, OUP 1975, pp.146-226

[3]:

Romila Thapar, A History of India, Vol. I, 1990, pp.167-68

[4]:

Y. Subbarayalu, op.cit. p- 43

[5]:

K.V. Zvelebil, Tamil Literature, Leiden/Koln, 1975.

[6]:

K. Kailashpathy, Tamil Heroic Poetry, OUP, London, 1968.

[7]:

Y. Subbarayalu, ‘Sangam and Post-Sangam Literature’, in Noboru Karashima, (ed.) A Concise History of South India, OUP, 2014, p.44

[8]:

R.L. Singh, A Regional Geography, New Delhi, 1992, pp.41-44

[9]:

Iravatham Mahadevan, Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the 6th Century A.D., Harvard University Press, Chennai, 2003, pp- 57, 62-63.

[10]:

K. N. Sivaraja Pillai, The Chronology of the Early Tamils: Based on the Synchronistic Tables of Their Kings, Chieftains and Poets Appearing in the Sangam Literature, University of Madras, 1932

[11]:

K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, Studies in Cola History and Administration. Madras: University of Madras, 1932; The Cholas, Madras, 1955.

[12]:

K. Kailashpathy, Tamil Heroic Poetry, London, 1968.

[13]:

J.A. Marr, The Eight Anthologies: A Study in Early Tamil, Madras, 1987

[14]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, op.cit. p.40; K.N.Sivaraja Pillai, 1932; however suggested to assemble them within some ten generations.

[15]:

Iravatham Mahadevan, op.cit. p.117

[16]:

K.A. Nilakantha Shastri, The Illustrated History of South India, p.41

[17]:

This order continues from Puram: 2 to 16; and after that the order is given up and little confused.

[18]:

Kural; 995, Parimelakar Commentary

[19]:

N. Subramanian, Sangam Polity: The Administration and Social Life of the Sangam Tamils, Ennes Publications, Madurai, 1980, p.35

[20]:

Kol means a scepter, a shepherd’s staff and an arrow.

[21]:

Tolkappiam Porul: 60.

[22]:

Arthasastra, Book II, Chap. 76

[23]:

Rock Edicts II, and XIII

[24]:

V. Kanakasabhai, The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago, Madras, 1904, p.48; Silapatikaram: XXVI, 99, XXX, 161

[25]:

Puram: 17; Kudam and Kuttam means west.

[26]:

Silapatikaram: xxix: Usal Vari.

[27]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Illustrated History of South India, p.40

[28]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Colas, pp.19-20. Like Amba with Amma.

[29]:

Puram:167

[30]:

Devadatta Ramakrishna Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures: 1918, pp.8, 9

[31]:

Puram: 58

[32]:

N. Subrahmanian, op.cit., p.39

[33]:

Vincent A. Smith, Early History India, Oxford, 1914, p.439

[34]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Illustrated History of South India, p.40

[35]:

Ibid., p.40

[36]:

Puram: 6, the word man means permanent, probably related to the permanence of the institution of kingship.

[37]:

Puram: 308; 4 & 5. Tol. Porul: 60.

[38]:

Sten Konow, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1914, p.285

[39]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Illustrated History of South India, p.41

[40]:

Ibid. p.41, Nilakantha Sastri suggested it as a commonly found poetic exaggeration of Sangam collection.

[41]:

Ibid, p.42

[42]:

Ibid., p.42

[43]:

Ibid, p.42, Kula-Sangha was originally mentioned by Kautilya what Sastri compares with. Additionally he foresees that the similar clan rule might have prevailed in the Chola and Pandya kingdoms of this period.

[44]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Illustrated History of South India, p.43

[45]:

Ibid, p.44

[46]:

Manimekhalai, Sengadirccelvan Tirukkulam, Padigam, 1.9; Silapatikaram, vii-27.

[47]:

Like Kanyakumari Stone Inscription of Virarajendra, and Literature of Kalingattuparanai and Vikramasolan Ula.

[48]:

Manimekhalai, Padigam, II. 10.2.

[49]:

Puram, 39

[50]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Colas, p.31

[51]:

Ibid, Verse 3, End of Porunararruppadai, p.57

[52]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Illustrated History of South India, p.45

[53]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Colas, p.30.

[54]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Illustrated History of South India, p.45

[55]:

Ibid. p.46

[56]:

Ibid, p.46

[57]:

In imperial Chola inscriptions and in other places

[58]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Illustrated History of South India, p.46

[59]:

Ibid, p.47

[60]:

Ibid.

[61]:

K.A.N. Sastri, The Colas, p.49

[62]:

SII. V.II, pp.-152-3, 253, 377-9, see E.J. Hultzsch’s discussion related to this point.

[63]:

Tiruvalangadu plates, v-43: Iuna-Iutanga-bandhah.

[64]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Cholas, p-51

[65]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Cholas, p.66, He argues that Kural made slight but significant change, where remaining six elements become subject to the king.

Like what you read? Consider supporting this website: