Part 6 - Non-Aligned Historiography

Non-aligned historiography of the Indian state particularly reflected as ‘integrative state formation model’, several works of this genre are critical against B. stein’s ‘segmentary’ theory, specially, Y. Subbarayalu, who was at first influenced by the very concept, particularly analysing the Chola state^[1] , as well as ‘unitary model’. This was corroborated by J.C. Heitzman in 1987^[2] . N. Karashima’s [1976]^[3] detailed epigraphical studies, initially with inclination towards feudalism, have proved his merit in collection of such epigraphical materials [1984, 1992].^[4]

The focus on ‘trade and organisation’ as tangible factors behind the chola state was reflected in writings of K.R. Hall [1980]^[5] , G.W. Spencer’s ‘politics of plunder’ [1976],^[6] and expansionism [1983]^[7] are evolved as the major features of the Chola state. R. Champakalaxmi, has envisaged in several papers that ‘urbanisation’ is the major important aspect of the Chola state and early medieval south India, [1979, 1986].^[8] Herman Kulke attempts the same ‘integrative model’ on Orissa history as ‘processural model of state formation’.^[9]

Focus on major ‘regional kingdoms’, of the early medieval state, and ‘little kingdoms’ and their successor states, manifested in recent studies on pre-modern state formation in India. N. Dirks, influenced by the original works of B. Cohn, on eighteenth century Benaras [1962],^[10] in his monograph ‘The Hollow Crown: Ethnohistory of an Indian Kingdom’ [1987], find the process of local state formation in Tamilnadu; use the same concept in Northern Andhra Pradesh. B. Schnepel,^[11] raised question about the validity of N. Dirks’ concept. Another major contribution in this regard was done jointly by V. Narayana Rao, D. Shulman and S. Subramanyam, ‘Symbols of Substance’ [1992]^[12] . It mainly dealt with the court culture and the state in the Nayaka period Tamil Nadu of 16^th 17^th century. D. Shulman’s earlier study in this regard was on early medieval kingship in Tamil Nadu [1985].^[13]

The incorporation of tribal communities into the process of manifold state formation through ritual policies, especially royal patronage of tribal cults, has got importance in papers on Orissa context, of H. Kulke [1993]^[14] and B. Schnepel.

Temple and Temple town become key point of research in understanding the state formation process. A. Eschmann on Orissa [1978]; and in south India contemporary temple inscriptions become important source material in the study of ‘Religious Networks and Royal Influence’ by G.W. Spencer [1969].^[15] Tanjore temple has been frequently referred by B. Stein in contemplating the concept of ‘ritual sovereignty’ [1977, 1980].^[16] In using the same Tanjore temple as a major instrument, James Heitzman, elucidated the rituo-political integration and economic development in the dynastic core areas of the Cholas. Arjun Appadurai^[17] underlines the endeavours of Vijayanagara rulers to control the temple cities and nodal point of royal influence through their patronage to major sect leaders. H. Bakker^[18] edited work on various aspects of ‘The Sacred Centre as the Focus of Political Interests, made valuable contribution in this regard.

The interests generated on Indian polity due to the endless debates of political issues in recognising the nature, character or structure of polity of an age, and formation and functioning of state in early India. Sometimes particular terms had been used to categorise the stages of developments from self-governing polity to state society with monarchical polity. Such expressions like, ‘non-statal’ state, ‘pre-state’ proto-state’, and various degree of ‘state-ness’, are often employed without giving the precise sense in which these are to be understood.

Extensive debates on issues relating the formation, structure and functioning of state in early India sometime creates an impasse, because these are ‘initially enlightening, ….. and the debate itself has become an obstacle of fresh thinking’,^[19] for any student of this field.

The historical scholarship in last few decades has done a great job to counter the ‘changeless Indian past’ and the issue of political processes and structural of polity has got divergent interpretations for early and early medieval India.

Above all N. Karashima’s thought provoking ‘Kingship in Indian History’, poses some major questions about the structure of kingship as manifested in ancient texts and practised in the realm of early medieval era. He and his Japanese cowriters studied kingship from various stand points and questions the validity of earlier state formation models, and proposes to reassess the earlier studies on the role and function of king himself and his office. In the past studies focus was mainly on the history of particular period with using some definite analytical concept, instead he recommended the issue of ‘kingship’ be studied in a larger perspective to understanding ‘the changes in the kingship concept and function in pace with the changes witnessed in the overall socio-economic formation’.^[20]

Arguing to move beyond the dominant historiographic constructs of the post independence era, in terms of Feudal, Segmentary or Integrative early medieval state, recent studies show interests on role of ‘ideologies’, either religious (bhakti and other regional ideas) or secular (political -treatises). B.P. Sahu, argues the same in early Indian history as ‘The Brahmanical Model viewed as an instrument of socio-cultural change-an Autopsy’.^[21] The recent thrust is to explore the making and function of ideological structure and its political context, by providing greater acceptance or legitimisation to the early Indian state.^[22]

U. Singh argues to explore the intellectual history of this age which received inadequate attention of the scholars. Reciprocal relationship between poli-process and intellectual engagement reflected in texts of the time should get more importance.^[23] She refers Sheldon Pollock and the need to explore the ‘political imagination’ to gauge the ideas and aspirations behind the rule.

The most influential work in this regard is The Language of the Gods in the World of Men, by Sheldon Pollock, who attempts a postmodern analysis of the pre-modern world, focussing upon the growth of Indian literature with reference to what Pollock calls ‘Sanskrit cosmopolitanism’ and ‘vernacularization’, a millennium of cosmopolitanism through which India made a world history and then another millennium of vernacularization through which we discovered regional identities and new aesthetics.

Both these have now culminated into a narrow world; a very narrow and vitiated concept of Hindutva on one hand, and even more dangerous concept of regional identities on the other. Hindutva is a perversion of India's great cosmopolitan past says Pollock. On the other hand an entirely different and very aggressive vernacularism is rising up in Assam and other parts.

It is described as a call for India to ‘look within’ once again and understand herself; Pollock examines the interrelationships of religion, literature, culture and power through these two millenniums. He demolishes the structure of prevalent notions. Religion did not really legitimise the power; it merely invested power with a ritualistic or ceremonial status. The ruling elites found it a vibrant medium for propagation of their power.

By the whole analysis Pollock presents a fine definition of culture itself - `all culture is trans-culture', and also demolishes the idea of little traditions and local cultures, as envisaged in modem Anthropology.

In his second edition of the Making of Early Medieval India, Prof. Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya argued for ‘that Indian past cannot be viewed with a fixed western lens. It has to be understood in its own terms, because the social and civilizational material from India’s past is so significantly different. He also gives justification for invoking ‘classical’ and ‘medieval’ period of it.^[24]

State formation is a major field in world history, and cross-cultural comparative studies flourish among historical sociologists, anthropologist, political scientists, economists, and historians. Their core questions vary from—why and how humanity moved away from egalitarian communities toward stratified ones; others, why centralised power has taken the particular forms it has in different parts of the world. Others still, how individual agency or institution and structural constraints/tension interact in the centralisation of power. Every dimension of the human experience is critically examined, from evolutionary theory and economics to cross-cultural encounters and social ideologies to state theories, which are explaining the motor of history.

Recent geopolitical trends have gathered scholarly interest in imperialism and state formation. To explore the ways that developments in the comparative social structures across the regions can help us understand state formation, and how state formation can throw new light on some of the debatable questions in contemporary social theory.

Though, the institution of kingship and king’s individual or personal efforts to exploit every possibility to strengthen his office and his expansion mechanisms of his kingdom never got adequate importance. What measures he took to increase revenue generation, its bilateral strategies and principles behind diplomatic relations with neighbours and in inland matters, what levels of authority it extended to protect and promote the image of kingship, and ultimately, how all these efforts gained its own form as ‘Early-Medieval kingship’ or polity with separable attributes.

In most of the past studies the general trend was to focus on some particular period with a specific analytical concept. However this issue of kingship in the larger historical perspective and on the basis of cross cultural study will contribute interesting explorations. On this basis, a comparative study of kingship and polity of major imperial regional powers, by examining contemporary source materials, could reveal newer empirical observations in the state studies. At the most we intended to put the emphasis, not upon a conclusion, but upon an enquiry about how such a question may be answered.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Y. Subbarayalu, ‘The Cola State.’ In Studies in History, 4, 1982, pp.269-306

[2]:

James Heitzman, ‘State Formation in South India, 850-1280’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, 24, 1987, pp.44-61

[3]:

N. Karashima, ‘Nayakas as Lease-Holders of Tamil Land’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 19, 1976, pp.227-32

[4]:

N. Karashima, South Indian History and Society, Studies from Inscriptions AD. 8501800, Delhi, OUP, 1984; Towards a New Formations, South Indian Society under Vijayanagara Rule, New Delhi, OUP, 1992

[5]:

Kenneth. R. Hall, Trade and Statecraft in the Age of the Colas. New. Delhi, Abhinav Publications, 1980

[6]:

G.W. Spencer, 1976, 'The Politics of Plunder: The Cholas in Eleventh Century Ceylon', in Journal of Asian Studies, 35, 1976, pp, 405-20

[7]:

G. W. Spencer, The Politics of Expansion. The Chola conquest of Sri Lanka and Sri Vijaya, Madras, New Era, 1983

[8]:

R.Champakalakshmi, ‘Growth of Urban Centres in South India, Kudamukku-Palaiyarai, the Twin City of the Colas’, Studies In History, 1, 1979, pp. 1-29; ‘Urbanisation in Early Medieval Tamil Nadu’, in S. Bhattacharya and R. Thaper, (eds.), Situating Indian History for Sarvapalli Gopal, Delhi, OUP,1986, pp. 34-105

[9]:

‘The Early and the Imperial Kingdom: A Processural Model of Integrative State Formation in Early Medieval India’, in The State in India, (ed.), by H. Kulke, OUP, 1995. pp. 223-262

[10]:

B. S. Cohn, 'Political systems in eighteenth-century India: the Banaras region’, Journal of American Oriental Society, 82, 1962, pp. 312-20

[11]:

B. Schnepel, 'Durga and the king: Ethnohistorical Aspects of the Politico-Ritual Life in a South Orissa Jungle Kingdom', Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute (Man), 1, 1995, pp.145-66

[12]:

V. Narayana Rao, David D. Shulman and Sanjoy Subrahmanyam; Symbols of Substance: Court and State in Nayaka Period Tamilnadu, Delhi, OUP, 1992.

[13]:

David Dean Shulman, The King and the Clown in South Indian Myth and Poetry, Princeton, 1985.

[14]:

H. Kulke, Kings and Cults: State Formation and Legitimation in India and southeast Asia, Monohar, New Delhi, 2001; B. Schnepel; op.cit. 1995

[15]:

George W. Spencer, "Religious Networks and Royal Influence in Eleventh Century South India," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 12, 1969, pp. 42-56

[16]:

B. Stein, (ed.), ‘South Indian Temples: an Analytical Reconsidertion’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, 14, 1977

[17]:

Arjun Appadurai, ‘Kings, Sects and Temples in South India, 1350-1700 A.D’, in B. Stein, (ed.), South Indian Temples:an Analytical Reconsideration, 1978, pp. 47-73

[18]:

H. Bakker, (ed.), The Sacred Centre as the Focus of Political Interests, Groningen Oriental Studies, vol. 6, 1992.

[19]:

Upinder Singh, ‘Politics, Violence and War in Kamandaka's Nitisara’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, 01/2010; 47(1), pp.29-62

[20]:

Kingship in Indian History’, Monohar, Delhi, 1999, intro, p.12

[21]:

B.P. Sahu, 'The Brahmanical Model Viewed as an Instrument of Socio-Cultural Change· an Autopsy', Procedings of the Indian History Congress, 46, 1985, pp.180189

[22]:

B.P. Sahu, ‘Legitimation, Ideology and the State’, Presidential Address, IHC, 2006; The Changing Gaze: Regions and the Constructions of Early, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, India, 2013; Kunal Chakravarty, Religious Process: The Puranas and the Making of a Regional Tradition, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2001; H. Kulke, Kings and Cults: State Formation and Legitimation in India and South East Asia, Delhi, 1993; H. Kulke, (eds.), Cult of Jagannath and Regional Tradition of Orissa, Monohar, Delhi 1986.

[23]:

‘Politics, Violence and War in Kamandakas Nitisara’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, 47, 1 [2010] 29-62

[24]:

Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya, The Making of Early Medieval India, OUP, 2012, Introduction to the second edition, Passages from the Classical towards the Medieval: Understanding the Indian Experience. p-xxi