Socio-cultural Scenario of Northern India in Early Mediaeval Period

[Full title: Socio-cultural Scenario of Northern India in Early and Early Mediaeval Period: Religious Patronage, Inter-mingling of Cultures and Religious Tolerance]

Indian civilization can boast of a very rich cultural heritage. The study of the living artifacts and masterpieces of Indian culture is extremely important for the present and future generations to explore new horizons in the cultural history of India.

Worship of the gods and goddesses is an essential ritual in Brahmanism. The gods belong to different groups and are supposed to live in different worlds,^[1] but they all belong to one large family. There are innumerable references to gods and goddesses in the Vedas. Due to such diversity in beliefs and practices, Brahmanism has a unique place in the history of the world. Traditions like Śaivism and Vaiṣṇavism evolved within Brahmanism and added colors and vibrations to it.

Rituals were not complicated and elaborate during the early vedic period. Nevertheless, strict conventions of the expensive vedic rituals were confined to the more affluent sections of the society. During this period, the rites and ceremonies of vedic religion became sophisticated. In the ṛgvedic age yajña used to be a less complicated activity and a general householder who has laid the sacrificial fire (āhitāgni) could perform it. But later on, as sacrificial rituals gradually developed into an integral part of worship, the priestly class devoted more and more energy to find out the hidden and mystic meanings of the rites. The ṛgvedic gods like Varuṇa, Indra, Agni, Sūrya, Uṣas among others, lost their glory in the sacrificial fold of contemporary religious scenario. But, along with the new gods like Śiva, Viṣṇu, and others; some of the lesser-known deities of the ṛgvedic period became more popular among common people. One of them was Rudra who bore the epithet of Śiva, Rudra was then worshipped as Mahādeva. Viṣṇu, the protector, rose into prominence during this period. He replaced Varuṇa. Worship of Vāsudeva was introduced in society and he was considered as Kṛṣṇa Vāsudeva, an incarnation of Lord Viṣṇu.

Indra and Agni were the most popular gods in the vedic pantheon. The highest number of hymns in the four Vedas has been dedicated to them. However, Agni occupies, after Indra, the most crucial position. Indra is praised as the highest God and was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the gveda. On the other hand, In the gveda, there are over 200 hymns that praise Agni. People mainly worshipped the vedic deities, and they performed sacrifices to propitiate the gods and to appease made offerings to them. Purāṇic gods replaced the vedic gods. The Purāṇas depict them as gods dependent upon the triad of Brahmā, Viṣṇu, and Maheśvara. A similar fate, like the vedic deities, awaited Brahmā, who was excluded from domestic worship. The status of other vedic gods was further diminished. Indeed, they were worshiped mainly as part of an elaborate vedic ritual or sacrifice. They were remembered during the recitation of peace mantras and introductory hymns on auspicious occasions and during ritualistic worship in households. Thus, vedic gods somehow lost their elevated position and became secondary in society.

The gradually growing influence of purāṇic culture, the emergence of purāṇic deities in the pantheon, the impact of vedic culture and the mingling of the vedic and purāṇic cultures can be studied from several sources like creative literature, scriptures, inscriptions, and coins. There are numerous instances of vedic rituals performed by the kings in northern India during the period under discussion. Almost all of them and their feudatories claim to have performed vedic sacrifices. Kings of high repute worshipped purāṇic Gods and performed vedic sacrifices as well. There are plenty of references to kings holding epithets like Parama-vaiṣṇava, Parama-māheśvara, Parama-bhāgavata and the like and at the same time performing several vedic sacrifices. The proclamation of this coexistence of vedic and purāṇic beliefs by the rulers may be explained from a sociopolitical point of view. The performance of certain vedic sacrifices was politically significant while devotion to purāṇic gods was a mode of connecting with the popular religious beliefs. In many Sanskrit inscriptions of northern India we find a considerable number of instances of such cultural intermingling.

Conveniently, their cultural history is being studied at various stages in the early and middle ages. These studies combined with findings from the epigraphic sources have encouraged the present researcher to attempt a study of the mingling of vedic and purāṇic culture in the current chapter . That during this period the vedic and purāṇic (mythological) cultures went in harmony is reflected clearly in land grant charters issued by the rulers.

It is also found that orthodox vedic and purāṇic ritualistic practices existed side by side with other heretical ones like Buddhism and Jainism which is an excellent example of the religious generosity and tolerance present at that time. It is definitely a proof of the diverse and colourful character of the ancient Indian religious scenario.

In the present chapter a discussion on some of the popular religious epithets of kings at different times will be followed by a detailed chart. Then a chronological analysis will be attempted with reference to various dynasties adhering to different coexisting cultures affirming the cultural and religious tolerance in early and early medieval northern India.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

According to Yāska, there are only three deities by location—agnih pṛthivisthāno, vdyurvendro vā antarikṣasthānaḥ, sūryo dyusthānaḥ, (Nirukta, VII. 5).