History, Culture and Antiquities of Tamralipta
53,560 words
This Study deals with the History, Culture and Antiquities of Tamralipta: an ancient city-port and important Trade centre with a rich history of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Tamralipta corresponds to the modern Tamluk, situated in West Bengal (India). It witnessed prosperous times during the Gupta dynasty since the 3rd century CE although this s...
Appendix A - Tamralipta (Tamluk) in Mediaeval period
Appendix - A Tamralipta (Tamluk) in Mediaeval period Although there is mention of the glory of Tamralipta in the pages of ancient history, her mention in the history of the mediaeval period, i.e., from the 13th century A.D. to the grant of Dewani, 1765, is very scanty. Since the Sena rule in Bengal, the glory of Tamralipta began to decline and during this period this janapada came under the possession of the kings of Orissa. Ziyauddin Barəni records that during the reign of Balbans (1266-87), South Radha which included the whole of present Midnapur district and major portions of Birbhum, Bankura, Burdwan and Hooghly districts was under the Kingdom of Jajnagar (Orissa) In a word, Midnapur including Tamralipta and its adjoining places remained outside the Muslim invasion till the sixth decade of the 16th century A.D... During 1568 A.D. Midnapur along with the whole of Orissa came within the kingdom of Sulaiman Karrani (1665-72 A.D.), the second 3 1 Afghan Sultan of the Karrani dynasty.2 During Akbar's reign, Midnapur and the whole of Orissa came completely under the rule of the Mughals in 1576 A.D. Of the twenty mahals belonging to Midnapur under 'Sarkar Jaleswar', mentioned in the list of Todar 4 Mal, Tamluk was one of them. During Sahajahan's reign, Tamluk was transferred from 'Suba Orissa' to 'Barigla Suba' . 5 During the 1. Majumdar, R.C., History of Mediaeval Bengal, P. 11 ; 2. 3. 4. 5. Majumdar. R.C., (Ed.), Bangladeser Itihas (Madhya Yug), p. 14 Ibid., p. 74 ; Sarkar, J.N.(Ed.), History of Bengal, Vol. 2, P. 183 Sarkar, J.N., (Ed.), 00.cit., p. 194 Ain-i-Akbari (Ed. of Tr. by Jarrott and Sarkar) Vol. - 2, pp., 138, 156. Itihas 0 Sanskriti, Mednipur Zella, Pratham Sankalan, p. 69
172 mediaeval period though Midnapur at first came under the possession of the kings of Orissa and then it was annexed to the Mughal empire, it appears from the records of the local ruling dynasties and from the local legends that there were many independent and semi independent kings and zamindars then ruling in Midnapur. such royal families ruled at Tamluk" and Mayna" under Tamluk subdivision. In the second half of the seventeenth century a new royal family came into existence at Mahisadal. B with the above political background in view, an attempt has been made here to depict the religion, society, culture and modes of life of the inhabitants of the place of our study. INHABITANTS The inhabitants of Bengal in the mediaeval period can be divided into two segmentis the Mindus and the Muslims. When the Muslims started residing in this country, the whole mass of the Indian people used to be called as 'Hindu'. In the ancient period, besides various Koms (tribes), people of three religious communities, 1.G., Hindu, Buddhist and Jalna lived in Bengal but in the mediaeval Bengal there lived only two Hindus and Buddhists. References to the existence of the later communities, though a few in number, 6. Jana, V, Brihattara Tamralipter. Itihas, pp. 160 - 166 7. Jana, S.N & Maity, S., Brihattere Maynar Itibritte, pp. 33 • 33 - 48 8. Altch, K.C., History and Account of the Mahishadel Raj Estate. E
173 have been made in the Chaitanya Bhagavata and Chaitenve Charita Mrita." No reference to the existence of the Jainas in mediaeval Bengal has been made in diterature. As Tamralipta was an important centre of Buddhism in ancient period, it is expected that in the mediaeval period some Buddhist families lived there. However, there is no positive evidence to prove it. Besides the caste Hindus, people belonging to different tribes, castes and koms also lived there since the early period as already observed. A close study of the mediaeval Bengali literature reveals that use of weapons and warfare, 1.e., the duties of the Kshatrives were done by the sudzas as well as the people of low castes in this country. The Bacdis, the Poms and such other low caste people became efficient in werfare 10 since the hoary pasts Even today their popularity in the area of our study is easily noticeable. It is to note that the Mislims began to settle in the place of our study in the later-half of the 16th century after its incorporation within the Mughal empire. However, in some parts of Bengal the Muslim settlement began after the conquest by the Mislims in the 13th century, A.D.. At first a band of Turkey soldiers conquered some parts of Bengal and began to settle there. After that due to the efforts of Muslim rulers. Plzs and Gaals, the socially depressed low caste Hindus and Buddhists were converted 9. Malty, P.K., "Madhvayuger Bangla Sahitve Baudha Chitra, " 'Chitralekha 1st Vol., Tamluk, Midnapur, 1971 pp. 3 o 10. Makhopadhyay, A., Unis Sataker Samai O Sanskriti, p. 19
174 11 to Islam and they increased the number of Muslims. In the beginning of the 16th century A.D., while writing about Bengal, the Portuguess traveller Durate Barbosa records that, "in Bengal many idolator Hindus adopted Islam every day in order to earn the favour of the 12 Sultan and his officers. Both the Hindus and the Muslims lived in the place of our study in the Mediaeval period as is evident from the present day existence of the temples and mosques constructed for their respective worship and prayer for religious purposes as well as from their present day living. II. RELIGION In Midnapur vis-a-vis the whole of Bengal, side by side with the worship of Brahmanical deities, many folk deities, like : Mangal Chandi, Manasa, Shashthi, Sitala, Dharma Thakur, Dakshin Ray, Kalu Ray, Panchananda, Panchu Thakur, Keshtrapal, Jogad/ya, Vasuli, etc., Were widely worshipped in this period. Even a few Pirs and Gazis and a folk divinity named Olabibi or Bibima were also worshipped. Tree worship was also widely prevalent. References to the worship of above deities and cults in our place of study occurred in literature.13 All these deities and cults are still popular. From the present day popularity of Siva worship and from existence of a number of Siva temples constructed mostly in the mediaeval period, it can be assumed that as in ancient times, Siva was widely worshipped in this period. The popularity of the goddess Bargabhima and of the 11. Karim, A., Social History of the Muslims of Bengal, pp. 39 - 139 ; Majumdar R.C.(Ed.), Bangladeser Itihas (Madhya Jug) pp. 231-235 12. Majumdar, History of Mediaeval Bengal, p. 56 13. Maity, P.K., "Mednipurer Dharma Jiban O Dhyandharana", 'Mrinal' (a monthly), Ashara, Sravana & Agrahayana), B.S. 1380.
175 15 dargah of Manik Pir which was constructed towards the end of the 14 mediaeval period is known to every body in this region. We have already mentioned about the influence of Dharma Thakur, in Moyna region. From the various works of the mediaeval period it is known that there was widespread practice of the observance of festivals in honour of different deities, namely, Siva (Sivaratri and Gajan), Lord Jagannatha (Rathayatra), Lord Krishna (Janmashtami, Rasyatza and Dol utsav), Durga, Kali, Jagadhatri, Lakshmi, Saraswati, Kartikeya and Viswakarma. The god of Bastu (house) was also invoked and a 36 festival in the month of Paush was observed in every house. Tantrism was in vogue. 17 18 Tamluk was a centre of Vaishnavism preached by Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, It is recorded that Lord Sri Chaitanya passed through Tamluk when he was on the way to Puri in 1507 A.D. The Mahaprabhu temple was built here to mark the memory of his coming over to Temluk. After his disappearence from the mortal life, his favourite disciple Basudev Chose, after egeting monetery help from many kings and zamindars, built this temple and set up an idel of Mahaprabhus The existence of both the temples of Mahaprabhu and Jishnuhari bear testimony to the fact that there was great influence of Valshnavism at Tamluk town. Besides these, the worship and festival organised in connection with the idols of Jagannatha, Balaram and 14. Malty, P.K., The goddess Bargabhima: Maity, P.K., "Manikpi rship Tamralipta", Folklore, Vol.-XI, Bolklore, Vol.-XI, "No. 5. May, 1970 Pp. 166 - 176 15. Supsa, PP.. 140- - 142 Supra, 16. Maity, P.K., "An note on the festivals of Mediaeval Bengal", Folklore, Vol. XX III, No. 6, June, 1982, pp. 119-126 17. 18. Supra, pp. 128 - 129 Goswami, Gopinanden, Tamoluke Srikrishnachaitanya.
176 Subhadra in Jagannatha temple and the idols of Rama and sita in Ramji temple at Tamluk town ; the idol of Sri Sri Syamsundar Jiu, the family deity of the Mahishya royal family of Bahubalindra at Maynagarh; the idols of Rama, Sita etc. in Ramji temple and the idol of Lord Krishna in Gopal jiu temple of the Mahisadal royal family have become very famous at Tamluk sub-division. Moreover, the siva temple of Reyapara and the Sitala temple at Bamunara (P.S. Nandigram) also attract votaries far and near. All the above temples had been constructed in the later part of the mediaeval period. It is locally believed that Tamralipta is the place of kopalmochana tirtha "where Siva, in ancient times, took his bath in a pool with a view to detach the severed head of Daksha. After the sacred bathing, it is believed, Siva became free from the sin of killing by visiting the kopalmochana tirtha at Tamralipta, and by taking a bath in a pool there, Tamralipta has been acclaimed as one of the important tirthas in India. The sacred pool, it is so believed now, is on the spot near the Sankarara Khal on the heart of the Tamluk town proper where now pilgrims take their baths. The #19 Sankarara Khal is an offshot of the river Rupnarayan. For the currency of this belief many pilgrims come to Tamluk to have baths in the sacred pool for removing sin and for getting fortune on the last day of the Bengali month of Paush. Now we shall discuss about the state of Islam in the broad perspective of Bengal. However, the sources of information are very 19. Maity, The Goddess Bargabhima, pp.28 - 29
177 scanty. "Of the five basic tenets of Islam, the first three, viz., Imam (belief in Allah) or Paighambar (Prophet), Namaz or prayer to All-ah and Roza or fasting were regularly followed by the Bengali Muslims referred to in our literature, 120 mut regarding Hadi ... visiting Mecca and other places considered holy by the Muslims and Jakat, i.e., the giving away one fifth of one's income to the poor and the needy, we do not find any reference to their observance in the mediaeval literature. A few unauthorised Islamic practices such as the growth of Mollaism (like our priests), paying homage to the Muslim saints and Pics by offering candles at their dargahs 21 in the evening, taking, amulets, caste distinction, etc. observed by the Muslims of Bengel. were also In order to make a synthesis between Hinduism and Islam in the mediaeval period, the Bhakti cult that was in voque since the ancient times, took a new form. The concept of god or Allah as one and the same was preached by Ramananda, Kabir, srichaitanya, Namdev Nanak and others. The effort of making co-ordination between the two religions, to some extent, was successful. In Bengal the Bhakti cult spread like a wild fire by the efforts of Srichaitanya. Perhaps the Firs and sufis among the Muslims also followed this path. That is why even today the Hindus offer pule and make manat at the dargahs of Pirs and Gazis. We can well imagine that the Bhakti cult or the religion of devotion once took deep roots in the place of our study. 20. Maity, P.K. "Islam in Mediaeval Bengal", Vidva, Vol. VI, No. 11, p. 576 21. Mukundaram : Kavikenken Chendi, Basumati ed, pp. 67 - 68 ; Dvija Madava Medical Chendif Git, ed. by Bhattacharya, S., PP. 71 74 # Dvija Ramdev & Abhyamangal, ed. by Das, A., PP. 78 - 84.
178 III. SOCIETY From the Chandimangal-Kavya of different poets of the 16th and the 17th century A.D. we know that a new Kingdom was established by a hunter Kalketu at Qujrat (a place name in Radha) where the people of different castes or sections, both the Hindus and the Muslims migrated from the neighbouring kingdom. In the Hindu society the Brahmans (the priestly class), the Kayasthas (the merchant class) and the Valdyas (native doctors) enjoyed special predominancy. Mention of different gotra and gen of the Brahmans, pride for Kulinism and desire for leadership among the Kayasthas, mention of other castes along with their professions as well as of the outcastes with their professions have been made in the aforesaid vernacular tests of the 22 period. The coming of the people belonging to the higher to lower order of the society in the newly founded Kingdom by Kalketu is indicative enough. Probably a project of establishing an ideal society taking people from all strate of society was undertaken in some areas at that time. From the writings of Biprades and Mukundaram, we find the 23 social structure of the Muslims. In the Muslim society the Savvids (those who claim as the decendents of the prophet Muhammad). Alims (those who are well versed in Islamic religion and sciences) and Shaykhe (saints) enjoyed wide pre-eminence and were respected by the Muslim population. Next to them in social hierarchy, mention may be made of the Redis and the Mullas. Besides these, the Muslim ● 22. Mukundaram Kavi Kanken Chandi (Basumati ed.). pp. 67 - 68 # Dvija Madhav : Maigal Chandir Git, pp. 71 - 74: Dvija Ramdev s Abhyamangal, pp. 78 23. Mukundaram, opicit., p. 68, Bipradas • Menasa Bijay, p. 114 :
179 24 Among the population were classified as the Turks, the Pathans, the Mughals (Mongols), etc. This classification was not rigid like that of the Hindus, Kingship among these classes was in vogue, low classes of Muslim population, according to Mukundaram, mention may be made of Gold (milk-man), Jolha (weaver), Mukeri (billock-cart driver), Pithari (cake-seller), Kabedi (fish-seller), Sanakar (maker of looms), Tiretas (bownen), Kagii (maker of papers) and Darli -25 (tailors). If we look at the present social structure of the HinduMislim inhabitents of the area under study we find that there is a great similarity with the description of the 16th century poet Mukundaram as if he had sketched the social structure of this area of his time. Though the society primarily based on agriculture as in the enclent period, there are instances to show that the people used to take up other professions for their livelihood. IV. CULTURE In the mediaeval period, Bengali culture flowed into three streams *** the Hindu culture, the Muslim culture and the folk culture. The Hindu culture may be studied under three heads - 1) Brahmanic culture # 11) Vaishnava culture and 111) Sakta culture. The main object of the Brahmanic culture was to mould the Hindu society as outlined in the Hindu scriptures, 1.e,, the Purinas and the Smritis by the Brahmanic Pandits. The preserver and patzon of 24. Karim, A., opecit., pp. 149 157 # Majumdar (Ed.), Bangladeser Itihas (Madhya Yug), p. 237 25. Mukundaram, op.cit., p. 68
180 this culture was the upper class Hindu society led by the Brahmins. The lowest units of this culture were the villages. As in the present day society, people belonging to the low castes and low birth remained outside its orbit. With the advent of Lord Srichaitanya, the Vaishnava culture appeared in Bengal with a separate entity. The role of Chaitanya as a propagator of Vaismavism based on the cult of devotion of Srikrishna 26 is remarkable. He tried to obliterate the rigidity of the caste divisions. Due to his efforts the Vaishnava religion and culture have left an indelible impression on the life of the Bengalees. He tried 27 to purify Vaishnavism in all its aspects. Due to the influence of Tantrism some sects sprang up in mediaeval Bengal which brought calamities to the society. Though ordinarily the followers of Tantrism were regarded as Saktas, they also included the followers of Saivism, Vaishnavism and Buddhism. From the writings of Narattoma Das and Vrindaban Das we know that the influence of Sakta culture was felt by the people of the lower strata of society. 29 Though three streams of Hindu culture flowed in the area under review during the mediaeval period, the influence of the Vaishnava culture was the strongest. 30 28 The Muslim culture thrived in Bengal with a separate identity. 31 But its standard was not of high order. However, after the 26. 27. Majumdar (Ed.), Bangladeser Itihas, (Madhya Jug) p. 255 Ibid., pp. 257 - 261 28. Ibid., pp. 264, 265 29. 30 • 31. Vrindaban Das & Chaitanya Bhagavata 1.2 ; Narattoma Das : Premavilas,, p. 10 Souvenir, Sri Aravinda Abirbhav Utsav, Mahisadal, (Ed. Sarkar, T.N.), 1982, p. 33 Majumdar (Ed.), Bangladeser Itihas (Madhya Yug), p. 235
101 establishment of Mughal rule in Bengal, the Muslims here had come in touch with the Islamic culture of outside Bengal. With the passing of time many Muslim scholars and Muslims of high birth began to settle in Bengal. As a result higher education and culture spread among the Bengali Mislims. The Arabic and Persian literature was 32 flourished. In spite of that we connot definitely say that the Muslim culture was of high order in the place under review. The folk culture during this period showed its expression in a vigorous form. The majority of the people belonging to the lower order of the society was under its fold. Even the Muslim population of Bongal shared this culture as most of the Bengali Muslims were 33 converted Hindus. Even on festive occasions of both the communities, 34 common people of both the sects meet together. It is reliably, reported that "the people of both the communities mest together under the roof of Pisiem especially at the annual festivals of 35 different PiEs. Similarly the Muslims of West Bengal still directly or indirectly participate in the worship of different 30 deities. However, the people of the upper strata of society of both the communities lived the lives by creating separate compartments to a great extent, but the common folk of both the communities not only joined with each other on many of their festive occasions, but also were friendly to each other. 32* Ibid., p. 237 33 34. 36. 36. Ibid., P. 233 Melty, Historical Studies .. pp. 384 - 185 ; "The great communities of Bengal the Hindus and the islems - once lue joined with each other in their festive seremonies, apparently participating in their mutual beliefs without losing regard for their respective creeds." (Sen., D.C., Eastern Bengal Ballads, Vol. - III, part - 1, p. 4). Maity, "Hindu Muslim Amity and the Qult of Pixiem", Vidya, Vol. VII, No. 11. 1982, p. 312. Malty, Historical Studies ..., p. 185.
V. MODES OF LIFE 182 An attempt has been made here to depict the modes of life of the Bengalees on the basis of the writings of the vernacular poets of the mediaeval period. Though these poets hailed from different parts of Bengal, there are similarities in their descriptions about the modes of life namely social customs, rituals and ceremonies, dress, ornaments, cosmetics, education etc. All these convincingly prove that the modes of life were almost the same throughout Bengal. Therefore, it can be said with certainty that the modes of life of the inhabitants of Tamluk and its adjoining places were similar to that of other places of Bengal. Of course there might have some local variations. The ways of life of the average Bengalees in the mediaeval period was the same in many respects as in the modern period. The society was patriarchal and family-based. The father was the head of the family. In absence of father, the eldest brother became the head. From his personal experience in life, Ruparam, the 17th century poet of Dharmamangal-kavya has expressed that sometimes the guardianship of the elder brother became repressive, Most of the people lived on agriculture. The importance of agriculture on the Bengali life has been best illustrated from the story of the lamentation of Menaka, the mother-in-law of Lord Siva was became very sorry as his son-in-law (siva) did not cultivate the land. At last, however, Siva took cultivation as his profession as a last resort to ward of poverty in life. This suggests that cultivation was a respectable profession at that time.
183 To show respect to the Brahmans and to make arrangements of social festivals like annaprasan (first rice eating ceremony) marriage, etc. with pomp and grandeur were closely associated with social life. Child-marriage, polygamy, unequal marriage, kulinism, bride-price, the practice of sati etc. were widely practised. Though the pardah system was in vogue yet it was not strictly followed. There were instances of secret love-making and ultimate marriage. as recorded in the Vidyasundar-kavya. Details of marriage ceremony have also been recorded in the mediaeval Bengali kavyas. The social functions, like : annaprasan, upanayana, marriage etc., were not confined to the boundaries of the family only, the major portion of the population of the locality shared these. There were village squabbles and party factions in society In the work of Mukundaram delineation of various characters and family life have been found in details. In the 'Siva Akshyan the poet graphically depicts the day to day life of a middle class cultivator's family. In the "Kalaketu Upakhyan' the poet depicts the poverty striken life of Kalaketu and Fullara and in the "Dhanapati Sadagarer Upakhyan" he depicts the quarrel of co-wives Lahana and Khullana and many other details of daily life. All these help us to have a clear idea of the life of the Bengalees of the relevant period. The simplicity of Kalaketu, sincerity in love for the husband of Fullara, Lahana and Khullana and cunningness of Murari seal and Bharu Datta are very known characters of Bengal even found today. Honesty, sincerity, devotion to duty, loyalty,
184 ; bravery and courage which are found in the characters of Kalu Dom and his wife Lakhya as depicted in the Dharmamangal Kavya seem to be the reflections of the characters of the people of low caste in the then society. On the otherhand, devilry and cruelty in the character of Mahanad form the other side of the people of the society. Even the jelousy of goddess Manasa as has been depicted in the Manasamangal-Kavya seems to be a photograph of the life of a common man. Thus from the mediaeval Bengali literature we find descriptions of hopes and aspirations, weal and woe, love and affection and deprivation and poverty of the contemporary people. There was no dearth of rites and rituals in the day to day life of the people. The expectant mother was given Panchamrita at the fifth month of her conception and at the seventh or ninth month she was given sadh by the relatives. On the fifth day after the birth of the baby, the natta (curring of nails), on the sixth day sethera or Shashthi puja and on the twenty first day ekusa were observed. When the child attained his sixth or seventh month the first rice eating ceremony (annaprasan) used to be held. At that time a name was given to the child and a horoscope of the child was prepared. At his or her fifth year of age Kamavedha ceremony (i.e., piercing of ears) used to be held. On attaining the fifth or sixth year of one's life the child was given hatekhari or initiation to writing and thus formal education started. Then the most important event of human life, i.e., marriage occurred. A marriage used to be fixed through the match-makers. The last significant rite centering
185 a human life on earth was gradh ceremony⚫ 37 38 One of the characteristic features of the age was the observance of various rites and rituals, especially of the bratas by the women-folk. On the occasion of auspicious ceremonies songs from the Ramayana, Chandimangal and Manasamerigal, songs relating to the Vrindavana lila of Srikrishna, songs about Pala kings and taria songs were sung in accompaniment of music and dance. It is learnt from the Chaitanya Bhagavata that Chaitanyadeva along with his disciples acted in the drama "Rukmini Haran". The Muslims also enjoyed the songs of the Ramayana. The then society was not without superstitions. The omens and portents were believed and acted upon in the society. Some of the bad omens were calling of avulture overhead or a jethi (common house lizard) or a domchil at the time of a man's going out from home, to come across a wood-cutter with bundle of wood and the throbbing of right hand or right eye. During the period under review culinary was considered as an art. A detailed list of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes is found in the work of Mukundaram. Betel leaves touched with camphor were liked by both the sexes. Drinking and prostitution were in vogue. The houses were mostly thatched. There were differences between the haves and have-nots in the matter of dress, omaments and using luxury goods. The poor used 37. Maity, P.K., Banglar Laka Dharma O Utsav Parichiti, Chapter - VII 38. Maity, P.K., Folk Rituals of Eastern India.
186 to wear coarse cloths and the rich wore dhuti and sari made of tasar (coarse silk) and of jute fibres. Women used to wear various type of brassiere sometimes embroidered. The menfolk wore pagri (turban) and earings. Women ordinarily wore bangles, rings etc., carved out of conch shell. They also used nupur (tinkling ring for the feet) and besar (a kind of nose ornament). The use of silver, gold and precious gems for omaments was not unknown to them. Along with these they also used floral omaments. The women used to tie up their plait in various patterns. Saris made of jute fibres and bangles were very much liked by the womenfolk. Among the luxury articles used at that time mention may be made of naravan-tel (a kind of oil), mriganavi kasturi (musk-deer) and scents. The women painted kalal (collyrium) in their eyes and married women put vermillion mark on the hair-parting. As pastimes of the people play with dice, dolls and dust, wrestling, kite-flying, hide and seek, atul-batul, water-games etc. are mentioned in our vernacular literature. Both men and women used to play dice. From the writings of the mediaeval poets Dvija Madhab, Mukundaram, Ruparam and Manikram we get detailed picture about the syllabus or courses of study of the boys. However, there is no direct evidence of female education in our period. Of course female education was not totally ignored as is evident from the writings of Mukundaram who records that Lahana, Khullana and Lilabati could write and read letters. Besides this, there are other literary
187 evidence recorded in the works of Bharat chandra and Ramprasad which throw light on this point. 39 Though some glimpes of the modes of life of the Hindus in the mediaeval period are available, there is no such information about the Muslims. It is learnt from the Chandimangal kavya of Mukundaram that the Sayyids, the Moguls and the Qazis regularly observed the religious practices as outlined in the Koran. They, of course, did not hesitate to show reverence to the Pirs. At that time many Muslims did not keep hair on their heads and indulged to keep beards upto their chests. They wore das rekha caps (i.e. caps having ten colours) on their heads. Women used to wear loose trousers. Mukundaram observes the unclean habit of the Muslims (bhuniya kapare muchhe hat). (Meaning) After eating something they wipe their hands with their wearing cloths. Superstitions were also current among the Muslims. We have already stated on the basis of the references from Chaitanya Charitamrita that a few Buddhi few Buddhists continued to live in Bengal till the time of Lord Sri Chaitanya. No information about their living is available. But it is learnt from the same text that Lord Chaitanya defeated their guru in context of logic and made them embrace to his religious faith. 40 From the above narration we have come to know the modes of life of the Bengalees as depicted in the works of mediaeval poets. 39. Maity, P.K. "Madhya-yuger Bangla Kavya Bangali Narir Siksha Chitra", Itihas Anusandhan, 5 (Ed. by Chattopadhyaya, G.), pp. 125 134 40. Maity, P.K. "Madhya Yuger Barigla Chitralekha, 1st issue, 1971 pp. 3 Sahitye Bandha Chitra,
188 It is not unwise to think that probably the same modes of life 41 existed at Tamluk and its adjoining areas. 41. For writing the "modes of life" we have consulted the following works: (15th century poets) Bipradas: Manasa Bijay (Ed.by Sen, S.), Bijay Gupta : Padmapuran (Ed. by Bhattacharya, B.K.,) Narayan Deb : Padmapuran (Ed. by Dasgupta, I.); (16th century poets) Mukundaram : Kavi Kankan Chandi (Basumati ed.), Dvija Madhav Mangal Chandir Git (Ed. by Bhattacharya, S.). Vrindaban Das : Chaitanya Bhagvata (Fub. by Ghose, M.R.) ; (17th century poets) Ketakadas Kshemananda : Manasamangal (Ed. by Bhattacharya J.M.), Bangsidas Roy : Padmapuran (Ed. by Chakraborty R. and Chakraborty, D.), Jagajjiban Ghosal : Manasamangal (Ed. by Bhattacharya, S.C. and Das, A.), Dvija Ramdev : Abhyamangal (Ed. by Das, A.), Ramkrishna : Sivavana (Ed. by Bhattacharya, D. and Bhattacharya, A.), Ruparam : Dharmamangal (Ed. by Sen, S., Sen, S and Mandal, P.), Krishnaram daswer Granthabali (Ed. by Bhattacharya, S.N.), Krishnadas Kaviraj : Chaitanya Charitamrita (Ed. by Majumdar, S.C.) and (18th century poets) Chanaram Chakraborty & Dharmamangal (Ed. by Mahapatra, P.K.), Manikram Ganguli Dharmamangal (Ed. by Datta, B. and Datta, S.), • Rameswar Bhattacharya: Siva Sankirtan (Ed. by Haldar, J.), Bharat Chandra Rachana Samagra (Ed. by Gupta, K. and Basu, B.) and Ramprasad Granthavall (Basumati Ed.). Besides these wei. have consulted the work of Kunja Behari Das, the 17th century poet of Tamluk subdivision who wrote the Panchali of Satyapir. 1