Ancient Indian Dramas and Plays

The drama is an important branch of Sanskrit literature. "It has had a full and varied national development, quite independent of Western influence, and it throws much light on Hindu social customs during the centuries preceding the Muhammedan invasion." The essential elements of which the drama is composed had been in existence before drama in a complete form came into being. The hymns of the Rigveda contain dialogues, such as those of Sarama and the Panis, Yama and Yami, Puraravas and Urvasi. Tradition describes Bharata as having caused to be acted before the gods a play representing the wedding (svayambara) of Lakshmi with Purushottama (Vishnu). Tradition further makes Krishna and his cowherdesses (gopika) the starting point of the samgita, a representation consisting of a mixture of song, music and dancing, which are the other elements of the drama. The Gitagovinda of Jayadeva and the well-known Bengal Yatras represent this type of play. The other elements include the blending of lyrics and dialogue in prose and also in Prakrit. The Mahabhashya refers to the full-fledged acted dramas dealing with the episodes of Krishna, viz., Kamsavadha and Balibandha. Of the two kinds of literary composition, viz. Sravya and Prekshyha, the latter are the dramas which may be for the purpose of recitation (pathya) like the other literature or for the play (geya) proper. Of the Pathya variety of drama there are twelve branches, of which the first are known as Rupakas (representative plays), viz nataka, prakarana, natika, samavakara, ihamTiga, dima. vyayoga, utsrishtikanka, prahasana, and Bhana, Vithi and Sattaka. Similarly the Geya variety of drama comprises eleven branches, viz. dombika, bhana, prasthana, singaka bhanika, prerana, ramakrida, hallisaka, rasaka, srigadita, and ragakavya. The art of playing (abhinaya) consists of bodyacting (angika), verbal acting (vachika), acting with the help of costumes and make-up (aharya) and emotional acting (sattvika). Dancing which is an element of drama is a form of body-acting only (angabhinaya) with the help of the six major limbs (head, two hands, chest, two sides, waist, and two feet) and the six minor limbs (two shoulders, two arms, back, belly, two thighs, two

shanks or elbows, two knees and neck). The head acting includes twelve parts, viz. eyes, eye-brow, eye-lids, eyeballs, cheeks, cheek-bones, nose, lower lips, rows of teeth, tongue, chin, and face. The acting of the feet includes the movement of heels, ankles, soles, and fingers. The movements of the single hand comprise twenty-eight kinds of gestures and of the combined hands twentythree kinds of gestures.¹ Generally the plays are divided into scenes and acts. The scenes are marked by the entrance of one character and the exit of another. The number of acts in a play varies usually from one to ten. Every play begins with a prologue or introduction, which regularly opens with a prayer or benediction (nandi). Before a new act an interlude (vishkambha or pravesika), consisting of a monologue or dialogue, is introduced. In this scene allusion is made to events supposed to bave occurred in the interval, and the audience are prepared for what is about to take place. The whole play closes with a prayer for national prosperity which is spoken by one of the principal characters numbering four to five. The duration of the events is to be identical with the time occupied in performing the play on the stage ; but occasionally the interval is much longer. The unity of place is not observed. The Natyasastras supply details of the stage." The three earliest playwrights before Kalidasa are Bhasa, Sudraka, and Asvaghosha. Scholars do not yet agree about the relative position, and dates of these playwrights. Professor Keith places Bhasha and Sudraka between Asvaghosha (300 A. D.) and Kalidasa (400 A. D.) According to others Bhasa may be placed as far back as between B. C. 300 and 350, and Sudraka about B. C. 250. Fragmentary manuscripts discovered at Turfan have brought to light three of Buddhaghosha's Buddhist dramas of allegorical character. The first of these is known as Sariputra-prakarana, otherwise called, Saradvati-putra-prakarana. It belongs to the Prakarana type 1 For illustrations see Amritabazar Patrika, Puja number, October, 1943, pp. 165-166. 2 For illustrations see the writer's Encylopedia of Hindu Architecture sub-voce, 48

of dramas and comprises nine acts. The story 'deals with the events which led up to the conversion of the young Maudgalyayana and Sariputra by the Buddha. Sariputra had an interview with Asvajit. Then he discussed the question of the claims of the Buddha to be a teacher with his friend, the Vidushaka, who raised the objection that a Brahman like his master should not accept the teaching of a Kshatriya. Sariputra repels the objection by reminding his friend that medicine aids the sick though given by a man of inferior caste. Maudgalyayana greets Saputra, inquiring of him the cause of his glad appearance, and learns his reasons. The two go to the Buddha, who receives them, and who fcreteils to them that they will be the highest in knowledge and magic power of his disciples'. The end of the play is marked by a philosophic dialogue between Sariputra and the Buddha, which includes a polemic against the belief in the existence of a permanent self. It terminates in the praise of his two new disciples by the Buddha, and a formal benediction. Fragments of the second drama is recorded along with the manuscript of the first one. Its title is missing and the full story is not available. In it 'we find the allegorical figures of Buddhi (wisdom), Kirti (fame), and Dhriti (firmness), appearing and conversing. This is followed by the advent of the Buddha himself. In the other drama also the title is missing; the fiqures comprise the heroine Magadhavati, the Vidushaka Komudha-gandha and the hero Somadatta., and a prince, a maid servant and Sariputra and Maudgalyayana. A series of thirteen dramas are ascribed to the great poet Bhasa. He is mentioned (along with Sarmilla and Kaviputra and others) by Kalidasa (fifth century) in his Malavikagnimitra, by Bana (seventh century), by Vakpati (eighth century) and by Rajasekhara (900) as a great poet and playwright. The writers on poetics also refer to him; Vamana (eighth century) mentions the Svapna-vasavadatta and the Charudatta; Bhamaha criticises the plot of Pratijna-yaugandharayana; and Abhinavaguata (900) refers to Svapna-vasava-datta and the Charudatta. It is uncertain if Bhasa belongs to Ujjayini or be lived under the Western Kshatrapa kings. The story of the Madhyama-Vyayoga in one act

is based on the Mahabharata and reminds one of the talk of the love of the demon Hidimba for Bhima, the third (madhyama) of the Pandavas and their marriage resulting in the birth of Ghatotkacha. The Dutaghatotkacha in one act also belongs to the Vyayoga type of plays. The main story refers to the Kurus being jubilant over the defeat of Abhimanyu, Arjuna's son, at the hands of Jayadratha. Dhritarashtra warns them of the dangers that overshadow them. Ghatotkacha appears to them and predicts their punishment at the hands of Arjuna. The third play is Karnabhara in one act which deals with Karna's armour. He makes himself ready for his fight with Arjuna. He tells Salya, the Madra king, of the trick by which he won it from the great Parasurama. The latter retaliates for the deception by the curse that the arms should fail him in the hour of his need. The curse is fulfilled. Indra comes in the guise of a Brahman and obtains from Karna his weapons and ear-rings. Karna and Salya go Salya go out to out to battle, and the sound of Arjuna's chariot is heard. The fourth play is Urubhanga in one act. In it the fight between Bhima and Duryodhana is described. It ends in the breaking of the thigh of the latter who falls in agony. The Pancharatra is in three acts and belongs to the Samavakara type of plays, where there are more than one hero. The main story deals with the efforts made by well-wishers to save the Kurus and the Pandavas from the fatal conflict which ends in the ruin of the former and grave loss to the latter. The common preceptor who has undertaken a sacrifice for the benefit of Duryodhana demands of the latter as the fee for the sacrifice the grant to the Pandavas of half the realm. Duryodhana promises on condition that they are heard of within five days. In Act II Virata is found missing from those present at the offering. He has to mourn the loss of a hundred Kichakas including the chief one who attempted to insult Draupadi in Virata's palace. Bhishma suspects that Bhima must be at the bottom of this tragedy. In his instigation it is decided to raid Virata's cows, as he hopes thus to bring the facts to light. The foray, however, fails, for the Pandavas are with Virata in disguise. Abhimanyu is taken prisoner and married to Virata's daughter Uttara. The charioteer in Act III brings back the that

news, showing clearly that Arjuna and Bhima have taken part in the contest. Duryodhana, however, decides to keep faith. The sixth play, Dutavakya, in one act belongs to the Vyayoga type, deals with the Krishna legend from the Mahabharata, who came as the ambassador (duta) seeking peace with Duryodhana. At that time Bhishma has been made the chief of the Kuru forces. The ambassador demands the half of the realm for the Pandavas. Duryodhana refuses and seeks to bind the envoy. Enraged, he calls for his magic weapons. But finally he subdues his wrath and receives homage from Dhritarashtra. The seventh play, Bilacharita, in five acts deals with the life of Krishna from his birth until he kills king Kamsa of Mathura. This is a lively and vivid picture, full of action. There is much originality in it because it differs from the similar stories of Krishna in the Harivamsa, Vishnu and Bhagavata puranas which are of later growth than the Bhasa's play. The next two dramas, Pratima-nataka, and Abhisheka-nataka, are based on the Ramayana. The Pratimanataka in seven acts belongs to the Nataka type of plays. It shows the story of Rama from Dasaratha's death to his return to Ayodhya after recovering Sita from Lanka. It opens with the statue (pratima) hall where Dasaratha's statue is added added to those of his predecessors after his death at the banishment of Rama together with Lakshmana and Sita as a result of Kaikeyi's plot to enthrone Bharata. The Abhisheka-nataka in six acts also belongs to the Nataka type and is based on the Ramayana. It deals with the coronation (abhisheka) of Rama after his return from Lanka without any reference to the second banishment of Sita. The tenth one, Avimaraka, is a play in six acts. It is based not on the epics but on some unidentified story. "The daughter of king Kuntibhoja, Kurangi, is saved from an elephant by an unknown youth, who in reality the son of the Sauvira king, is living with his father as a member of a degraded caste for a year as the outcome of a curse. His low status forbids his union with the princess. But love triumphs and the lovers secretly meet, the youth coming in the guise of a thief. The news leaks out and the youth flies away.

In despair he seeks to burn himself to death but Agni repulses him. He attempts to throw himself from a rock but a Vidyadhara dissuades him giving him a ring which enables him to enter the palace unseen and save Kurangi, likewise desolated, from suicide. Then Narada appears and reveals the identity of Avimaraka who is not in fact the son of the Sauvira king, but the son of Agni by Sudarsana, the wife of the king of Kasi, who gave him over on his birth to Suchetana, her sister, wife of the Sauvira king. The happy marriage thus takes place with the approval of all those connected with the pair.' The Pratijna-yaungandharayana is a Prakarana in four acts. The story resembles the one in the Brihatkatha of Gunadhya and is referred to in the Mahabharata. The Vatsa king Udayana goes on an elephant hunt, but is taken prisoner by his enemy, Pradyota Mahasena of Ujjayini, a counterfeit elephant being employed for his overthrow. Yaugandharayana, the minister of Udayana, who is the hero of the play, determines to revenge the king. In Ujjayini Mahasena discusses with his wife the question of the marriage of their daughter, Vasavadatta, when the news of the capture of Udayana arrives. They decide that she shall take lessons in music from the captive. The two fall in love. Yaugandharayana comes to Ujjayini in disguise with his friends. Through his machinations the king is enabled to escape with Vasavadatta. But the minister is captured after a gallant fight. Mahasena, however, appreciates the cleverness of the ministers and approves the marriage of the pair. The Svapna-Vasavadatta or Svapna-nataka, which belongs to the Nataka type, is a play in six acts, the masterpiece of Bhasa and the most mature of his dramas. It is in continuation of the Pratijna-yaugandharayana. 'The minister is anxious to secure for Udayana, the Vatsa king who has married the princess Vasavadatta of Ujjayini, an extension of his power by wedding him to Padmavati, the daughter of the king of Magadha. Udayana, however, refuses as he is unwilling to leave his beloved Vasavadatta. The minister induces Vasavadatta to aid in his scheme. Taking advantage of a temporary separation from the king, he spreads the rumour that the queen and he have perished in a conflagration. The king is thus induced to consider

marriage with Padmavati. The minister has entrusted to her care the queen, giving out that she is his sister. Padmavati is willing to accept the love of the king, but learning that he has never ceased ceased to cherish the memory of Vasavadatta she is seized by a severe head-ache. The king comes to comfort her but does not find her and lies down, sleep overcoming him. Vasavadatta sits down beside the sleeping person considering him to be Padmavati. But as he begins to speak in his sleep about Vasavadatta she rises and leaves him, but not before he has caught a glimse of her, in a dream (svapna) as he thinks. He awakes and goes to the palace. Then he finds the good news that his foes have been defeated. At that time a messenger comes from Ujjayini bearing the picture of nuptial of Udayana and Vasavadatta. Padmavati sees this picture and recognises that Yaugandharayana's sister left with her was really Vasavadatta. The minister arrives to explain to the satisfaction of all the plan he has devised to secure Udayana's ends. The thirteenth and last of the existing plays, Charudatta, is in four acts without the Nandi verse at the opening and the Bharatavakya at the close. 'Charudatta, a merchant whose generosity has impoverished him, has seen a hetaira Vasantasena at a festival, and they have fallen in love. Pursued by the king's brother-in-law Samsthana, Vasantasena takes refuge in Charudatta's house. When she goes she leaves in his care her gold ornaments, and ransoms for his creditors to a servant of Charudatta, who renounces the world and becomes a monk. In the night the ornaments are stolen by a thief Sjjalaka, in order to gain the means to purchase the freedom of a slave of Vasantaseni with whom he is in love. Charudatta is overcome with shame at learning of the theft of goods deposited in his care. His noble wife sacrifices a pearl necklace, which she gives to Vidushaka to hand over to Vasantasena in lieu of her lost jewels. He takes the ornament to the hetaira, who has learned of the theft, but accepts it to have the excuse of visiting the merchant once more. She starts out to Charulatta's house after handing over the slave girl to Sajjalaka. At this point the play ends abruptly. It seems, however, that Charudatta was accused of theft and Vasantasena was in grave danger

of life through the machinations of the king's brotherin-law.¹ . The Mrichchhakatika, a Prakarana in ten acts, is ascribed to an unidentified king Suaraka to whom no definite date could yet be assigned, although he would be after Bhasa and before Kalidasa. The first four acts of the play are a reproduction with slight changes of Bhasa's Chirudatta. The names are slightly changed; the king's brother-in law is called Samsthanaka, and the thief Sarvilaka. Act 1 carries the action upto the deposit of the ornaments by Vasantasena. Act II relates Vasantasena's generosity in releasing the shampooer who turns monk and the attack made on him by an elephant from which her servant Kamapuraka saves him and gets as reward a cloak which Vasantasena recognises as Charudatta's. Act III describes Sarvilaka's success in stealing the jewels and the resolve of Charudatta's wife to give her necklace to replace them. In Act IV Sarvilaka gives the stolen jewels to Vasantasena who is, therefore, pleased with him, gives him permission to marry her slave girl although she is aware of his theft. At that time he learns that his friend Aryaka, who was imprisoned by the king as according to a prophecy the former was to get the kingship, has escaped from captivity. Thus Sarvilaka leaves his newly made bride with Vasantasena in order to help his friend. At that time Vidushaka comes with the necklace of Charudatta's wife which which Vasantasena accepts in order to use it as a pretext to see Charudatta once more. Act V further describes Vidushaka's visit, her departure from 1 It will be noticed that these dramas have certain features which are to be seen nowhere else. First, no other playwright has written so many dramas. Secondly, the variety is also missing elsewhere. Of these thirteen dramas the first seven are based on the Mahabharata, the next two on the Ramayana, the following three on the Katha class of literature, and the last one on the hetaira stories. Bhasa's originality in creating a sustained interest even on previou-ly known stories of the audience is no where lacking. Thirdly, of all Sanskrit playwrights, Bhasa appears to have recognised to a certain extent the distinction between a play proper and a dramatic literature, the former being more suitable for enacting and the latter for recitation or reading at leisure. Even the dramas of Kalidisa are less suitable for the stage while some of the later dramas of Bhavabhuti and others can never be eracted in their entirety and with success.

her house, and the storm which forces her to spend the night in Charudatta's house. Act VI reveals her next morning offering to return the necklace but her gift is refused by Charudatta's child to replace his claycart (mrith-sakatika) with a golden one. She is to rejoin Charudatta in a neighbouring park, the property of Samsthanaka. But by an error she enters the cart of Samsthanaka. And Aryaka who has been seeking a hiding place leaps into the cart of Charudatta and is driven away. Two policemen stop the cart, and one recognises Aryaka and protects him fron the other with whom he contrives a quarrel. In Act VII Charudatta sees his cart drive up, discovers Aryaka, permits him to go off in it, and he himself leaves to find Vasantasena. In Act VIII Samstanaka with the Vita and a slave awaiting Vasantasena in his park meets the shampooer turned monk washing his robe in the tank, insults him and beats him. Then Vasantasena arrives. Shamsthanaka tries but fails to win her and beats her apparently to death and buries her under leave-cover. For this cruelty the Vita and the slave leave his service and go to Aryaka. The monk reenters to dry his robe, finds and restores to life Vasantasena, and takes her to the monastery to be cared for. In Act IX Samsthanaka as the chief of Police accuses Charudatta as the the murderer of Vasantasena. Her mother is summoned as a witness but she defends Charudatta. The Police officer testifies to the escape of Aryaka, which implicates Charudatta. Vidushaka en route to return to Vasantaseni her jewels given to Charudatta's child visits the court but in his anger with Samsthanaka lets fall the jewels. This fact taken together with the evidence that Vasantaseni spent the night with Charudatta and left next morning to meet him in the park, and the signs of struggle there deceives the judge who condemns Charudatta to exile, but the king Palaka at the instigation of Samsthanaka converts the sentence into one of death. Act X reveals the hero led to death in a procession. Getting this news the monk appears. with Vasantasena just in time to prevent Charudatta's death. While the lovers rejoice at their re-union, the news is brought that Aryaka has slain Palaka and succeeded to the throne and granted a principality to Charudatta and approves of his legal marriage with Vasantasena. The crowd demands Samsthanaka's

death but Charudatta pardons him. The monk is rewarded by being appointed the chief of Buddhist monasteries in the realm." Three dramas are ascrided to the famous poet Kalidasa who is placed during the reign of the Gupta king Chandragupta II, Vikramaditya of Ujjayini, at 400. "The Malavikagnimitra is unquestionably the first dramatic work of Kalidasa". The play in five acts is a Nataka. Act I shows the heroine Malavika as Vidarbha princess, destined as the bride of Agnimitra, escaping and seeking Agnimitra after her brother Malhavasena has been captured by her cousin Yajaasena. Her escort was attacked by foresters on the way but she reaches Vidisa, the Mitra capital, and finds refuge in the home of Dharini, the senior queen of Agnimitra and learns. dancing. In Act II king Agnimitra happens to see a picture in which Malavika is depicted, and falls in love with her. All ends in happiness after the usual palace incidents.2 The Vikramorvasi in five acts, a Trotaka or Nataka, falls in the interval between the author's youthful Malavikagni mitra and his mature perfection of the Sakuntala. Here is shown the love of Pururavas, a king, and Urvasi, a heavenly nymph (apsaras). The prologue is followed by the screams of the nymphs from whom Urvasi on her return from the Kailasa mountain has been torn away by a demon. The king Pururavas hastens to her aid, recovers her, and restores her first to her friends, and then to the Gandharva king, but not before both have fallen desperately in love. Urvasi and a friend appear in the air and drops a letter written on 1 As a mattar of fact it is the best play in Sanskrit surpassing even Kalidasa's Sakuntala. While Kaldisa stands highest in poetical refinement, in tenderness and depth of feeling. Sudraka is pre-eminent among all play-wrights for the dramatic qualities of vigour, life and action and sharpness, and of excelling to genius even Snakespeare. 2 This love story is similar to that of Bhana's Svapnavasavadatta wherefrom Kalidisa might have taken the theme. Pushyamitra, Agnimitra, and Vasumitra are clearly of the Sunga dynasty formed by the first through the deposition of the last Maurya king. in 178 B.C. The contact with Yavanas is also historical. The heroic sacrifice reflects that of Samudragupta mentioned in Allahabad pillar inscription. The Malavikagnimura is the premature attempt of Kalidasa at dramatic art. It is essentially a work of youthful promise and achievement'. 49

birch bark breathing her love for the king. Urvasi's friend appears and finally Urvasi herself, but after a brief exchange of love passages Urvasi is recalled to play a part in heaven in a drama produced by Bharata. Two pupils of Bharata report that Urvasi played her part badly in the piece on Lakshmi's wedding; asked whom she loved, she answered Pururavas instead of Purushottama (Vishnu). Bharata cursed her but Indra intervened and gave her leave to dwell on earth with Pururavas until he had seen the fate of her child. Angry at her husband for some trivial cause Urvasi entered the grove of Kumara and was cursed to be converted into a creeper. The king laments at her disappearance and in his madness for her grasps a creeper which in his embrace turns into Urvasi. The king and his beloved are back in capital. At that time an arrow falls with an inscription "arrow of Ayus, son of Urvasi and Pururavas." While the king is amazed because he knew nothing of Ayus's birth and concealment by Urvasi, a woman comes from a hermitage hermitage with a gallant boy to return him to his mother as he has violated the rules of the hermitage by slaying a bird. Urvasi admits the fact of concealment and weeps to think of their severance, now inevitable, since the king has seen her son. But while Pururavas is ready to abandon the realm to the boy and retire to the forest in grief, Narada comes with a message of good tidings. A battle is raging between the gods and the demons; Pururavas's arms will be necessary, and in reward he may have Urvasi's society for life.' ' The Sakuntala in four or five recensions but in all in seven acts is the most popular drama The prologue leads up to the picture of the king Dushyanta in swift pursuit of an antelope entering the hermitage of Kanva. There on civil dress he enters the grove and hears Priyambad and Anusuya joking with Sakuntala 1 In this drama 'Kalidasa shows a marked advance in imagi. nation. His source is not precisely known. The story is old. It occurs in the Rigveda; it is cegraded to sacrificial application in the Satapatha Brahmana: it is also found in a number of Puranas, and in the Matsya there is a parallel to Kalidasa's version, for the motif of the nymph's transformation into a creeper, instead of a swan, is already present; Pururavas's mad search for her and her rescue from a demon are known. The passionate and undisciplined love of Urvasi is happily displayed.

who is troubled by a bee and ask her to seek the help of the king. Thereupon Dushyanta reveals himself and elicits that Sakuntala, born of Visvamitra and Menaka, a nymph, is but a foster daughter of Kanva and is intended to be married to a suitable groom. At that time both Sakuntala and Dushyanta fell desperately in love. The king gives order for the hunt to end, sends back the army and Vidushaka to the capital but he himself stays back and secretly marries Sakuntala. In Act IV Priyambada and Anusaya report that the king has left after his secret marriage with Sakuntala and that in her sadness she forgot to receive properly the harsh ascetic Durvasas who has cursed her to be forgotten by her beloved but may recollect at the sight of a signet (sakuntala). A A voice from the sky has informed Kanva at the moment of his return to the hermitage of the secret marriage and of Sakuntala's approaching maternity. Under the malign influence of the curse the king does not recognize his secretly married wife and cannot receive her. The hermits reprove him and insist on leaving her, refusing her the right to go back with them, since her duty is by her husband's side. The king's priest is willing to give her the safety of his house till the babe be born, but a figure of life in female shape appears and bears Sakuntala away, leaving the king still unrecognizing, but filled with wonder. It is reported that policemen have arrested a fisherman accused of theft of a royal ring found in a fish which he has caught; it is Dushyanta's ring which Sakuntala had dropped while bathing en route to the king's palace. The sight of the ring reminds the king of his marriage with Sakuntala and grief and repentance overcome him. From his despair the king is awakened by the screams of the Vidushaka roughly handled by Matali, Indra's charioteer, who has come to take the king as the gods neel his aid for battle. In Act VII Dushyanta is revealed victorious and travelling with Matali in a divine car to Hemakuta, where dwells in the place of supreme bliss the seer Maricha and his wife. Here the king sees a gallant boy pulling about a young lion to the terror of two maidens. They ask the king to intervene who feels a To his amazement pang as he thinks of his sonlessness he learns that this is no hermit's son, but his own. Sakuntala is revealed to him in the dress of an ascetic. Maricha crowns their happiness by making it clear to

Sakuntala "that her husband was guiltless of the sorrow inflicted upon her." An ordinary author of Western temperament would have concluded the story of Sakuntala like the story of Romeo and Juliet, at the fifth act where she was rejected. The master mind of Kalidasa prolonged the story not only to keep up the rule of dramaturgy not to end in tragedy but to demonstrate the Indian national principle of conjugal love being based on Dharma (religion). The union based on external attraction does. not last as was shown in the union of Siva and Parvati. Dushyanta was at first fascinated by Sakuntala's youth and beauty and she herself easily yielded contrary to the tradition of Kanva's hermitage which was retained by Anusuya and Priyambadi, because Sakuntala had in her blood the weakness out of which she was begotten. on her mother nymph by a sage. This ideal is missed in Shakespear's Tempest and in all Western dramas of similar circumstances. The rejection of Sakuntala was natural for Dushyanta despite Durvasas's curse which was devised to save the face of the king. His queen Hamsapadika had been singing the heart-rending song that the king neglected her as soon as the junior queen Vasumati came into the palace. Sakuntala if even accepted would have been similarly treated at the inevitable presence of a fourth queen. But by the rejection Kadidasa purified the king's basic lust for beauty and youth and revived the sagely inheritance in Sakuntala herself. It is for this reason that after rejection Sakuntala was taken to the peaceful heavenly hermitage of Maricha rather than to the Kanva's earthly hermitage 1 The story of Sakuntea is based on that of the Mahabharata. But the addition and alteration have made the play a perfect one. "Kalidasa excels here. in depicting the emotions of love, from the first suggestion in an inn cent mind to the perfection of passion; he is hardly less expert in patho-." "The richness of creative fancy and his skill in the expression of tender feeling assign him a high place among the dramatists of the world. The harmony of the poetic sentiment is nowhere disturbed by anything violent or terrifyin. Every passion is passion is softened without being enfeebled. The ardour of love never goes beyond aesthetic bounds; it never maddens to wild jealousy or hate. The torments of sorrow are toned down to a protou and touching melancholy." Hence it was that Sakuntala exercised so great a fascination on the calm intellect of Goethe. Sir William Jones -peaks equally highly of it. Professors Keith and Macdonell share the praise as shown by the above quotations.

where it was but natural to send her back. The repentance of the king at the sight of his signet ring removed his perpetual sin, and the ascetic practice of Sakuntala in the quietness of the heavenly hermitage of Maricha unlike her fast life at Kanva's hermitage prepared herself for a lasting union of hearts through the agency of her son Bharata. This may bring home, the remarkable comment of Goethe that the drama of Sakuntala combines in itself 'the flower of youth and the fruit of advanced age, the earth and the heaven.' Poet Rabindranath Tagore admires and endorses Goethe's insight of this unique production of Kalidasa and after comparing the Tempest and the Romeo and Julliet with the Sakuntalam comes to the correct conclusion that 'no drama of Shakespeare or any other Western or Indian author attained the height of Kalidasa's drama'. The wellknown dramas, Ratnavali, Priyadarsiks, and Naganarda are definitely ascribed to the same author Harsha. Professor Keith identifies this dramatist Harsha with unquestionably the king Harshavardhana of Kanauj" (606-548). The Ratnavali in four acts is a Natika. The story relates to king Udayana of Vatsa already celebrated by Bhasa in his Svapna-Vasavadatta and Pratijna-yaugandharayana. The minister Yaugandharayana has planned the marriage of the Vatsa king Udayana with the daughter of the king of Ceylon. He spreads the news that the queen Vasavadatti has died in a fire at Lavanaka. The king of Ceylon then yields the hand of his daughter and sends her in the care of Udayana's chamberlain and his own minister Vasubhuti to Vatsa, but, wrecked at sea, she is rescued by a merchant of Kausambi, t. ken there, and handed over to Vasavdata. The queen seeing the beauty of the princess, now named Sagariki, decides to keep her away from her innocent husband. But at the spring festival which she celebrates with Vatsa, Sagariki appears at the queen's train, watches the ceremony of the worship of love god (Kama) and falls in love with the king. But the queen herself appears before Sagarika, meets the king and listens to his confession of love to Sagarika, and then bitterly reproaches him. At the plight of the king Sagariki attempts suicide wherefrom Vidushaka saves her and hands her over to the king. When a magician is displaying his art

Vasubhuti escaping the shipwreck appears and relates the tale of disaster. News suddenly comes that the queen's quarters are on fire and Vasavadatta reveals that Sagarika is there. The king rushes to aid her and emerges with her. Vasubhuti recognizes in Sagarika the princess and Yaugandharayana arrives to confess his plot. Vasavadatta gladly gives the king to Ratnavali, the princess of Ceylon, since her husband will thus be lord of the earth, and Ratnavali is her full cousin. The Priyadarsika in four acts, also a Natika, shows the same old story in a slightly different form. It is reported that the king of Kalinga has driven away the king Dridhavarman, during Vatsa's imprisonment at the court of, Pradyota, because of his refusal to marry his daughter to him. The princess is given shelter by her father's ally, Vindhyaketu who, however, offends Vatsa and is attacked and killed by Vatsa's general Vijayasena. The beautiful princess (Priyadarsika) is taken as a part of the booty and the king allots Aranyaka, so named because she is picked from the forest. Act IV reveals Aranyaka in prison, the king in despair, and the queen in sorrow, as she has learned from a letter from her mother that Dridhavarman, her aunt's husban, is in bondage needing Vatsa's aid. Vijayasena and Dridhavarman's chamberlain bring the news of the defeat of the Kalinga king and re-establishment of Dridhavarman. Then it is represented that Aranyaka has poisoned herself. Vasavadatta is filled with remorse. The chamberlain recognizes the princess. But Vatsa's magic art revives her. Vasavadatta recognizes her cousin, and grants her hand to the king. The Nagananda in five acts is a Nataka. It is dramatization of Buddhist legend which was told in the Brihatkatha and in the Vetala pancha-vimsati. Jimutavahana is a prince of the Vidyadharas and Mitravasu, the prince of the Siddhas. Mitravasu's sister is told by Gauri in a dream that Jimutavahana would be her husband. She discloses the dream to a friend, which he overhears. The Vidushaka forces a meeting between the timid lovers who slyly confess their affection. But an ascetic comes and takes away the maiden to a hermitage In Act II Malayavati is love-sick in a garden where the king enters and declares his love to her. Mitravasu comes to offer him his sister's hand. The king declines being ignorant of the identity of the

cffer. She deems herself disdained and seeks to hang herself. Friends rescue her. Jimutavahana appears and proves that she is his love by showing a picture. The two exchange vows and are married. In Act IV Jimutavahana while strolling with Mitravasu sees a heap of bones of serpents daily offered to Garuda. He resolves to save the serpents by offering himself to Garuda. The nicther of Sankhachuda, a snake, refuses the substitute but Garuda bears away Jimutavahana. Act V opens with the anxiety of the parents and wife of Jimutvahana, to whom a jewel from his crown is borne Sankhachuda appears and reveals to Garuda his crime in giving the substitute. The hero expires as his parents arrive. Garuda is ashamed. Gauri appears to cut the knot, revive the prince and re-establish him in his realm in order to fulfil Malayavati's dream. By a shower of ambrosia the snakes slain by Garuda revive, and he promises to forego his cruel revenge. 1 The Mattavilasa is a Prashasana, farce. Its author is king Mahendra Vikrama-Varman, son of the Pallava king Sinha-Vishnu-Varman, and contemporary of the king Harsha of Kanauj. He ru'ed in Kanchi in the first quarter of the seventh century A.D. In the play he is alluded to bear the titles of Avanibhajana, Gunabhara, and Mattavilasa. The play opens with a Kapalin of the skull-bearing order and his damsel, Devasoma, intoxicated and unsteady and helplessly falling down. In remorse he proposes to foreswear strong drink but is persuaded by her not to break their penance and praise drink and their roles of life. In a description of Kanchi a parallel is drawn between a tavern where the pair is seeking charity and a scene of sacrifice. The two get alms but the skull serving as begging bowl is lost. Suspicion of theft falls on a Buddhist monk, Sakyabhikshu, who laments that despite the excellent fare he has received the law forbids the enjoyment of strong drink and women. He concludes that the true gospel of the Buddha 1 In comparison with Kalidasa and earlier dramatists Har-ha is much inferior in art and style. There is not much originality. But he has effectively devised the plot in both the Ratnavali and the Priyadarsika. The emotion of love is noble and gay. In the Nagananda Harsha rises in depicting the emotions of self-sacrifice, charity, magnanimity, and resolution in the face of death."

contained no such ridiculous restrictions, and expresses his desire to benefit the whole community by discovering the authentic text. When challenged he denies that his begging bowl is that of the Kapalin. His arguments do not convince the Kapilin. The Buddhist picks up Davasoma when she falls to the ground after trying to pull out locks of hair from his shaven head, the Kapalin accuses him of taking her in marriage and invokes punishment on the violator of the rights of Brahmans. A Fasupata worshipper of Siva is appealed to as an arbitrator but he finds the task too difficult. Both claimants proudly assert their adherence to a creed which forbids lying, and the Buddhist recites in addition the whole list of moral rules which makes up the Sikshapada. Pasupata suggests that they must take the matter before a court. En-route, however, a mad man who has rescued the skull from a dog appears and offers it to the Pasupata who haughtily rejects the horrible object, but suggests the Kapalin as the recipient. The Kapalin accepts the skull and turns away the mad man. The Kapalin apologizes to the Buddhist monk. The drama closes with the usual benediction (Bharatavakya) referring to the ruling king and the author." Three dramas and some other unknown works are ascribed to Bhavabhuti whose full nanie is Srikantha Nilakantha Bhavabhuti, son of Nilakantha and Jatukarni, grandson of Bhattagopala, of Kasyapagotra and of Taittiriya school of the Black Yajurveda. He belonged to Padmapara, apparently in Vidarbha but he shifted to Ujjaiyini where before Mahakala his dramas were played. Kalhana mentions him as a member of the court of Yasovarman of Kanyakubja who was defeated by Muktapida Lalitaditya of Kashmir in about 736 A. D. His earliest play is the Malati-Madhava, which is a Prakarana in ten Acts. A Buddhist nun, Kamandaki, plans to unite in marriage her two favourite pupils, Malati and Madhava, who are respectively the daughter 1 The subject is trivial. The author merely shows his acquaintance with the Buddhist tenets. The style is simple and eigant and is appropriate to the subject matter. Verses are not without force and beauty. In prose speeches unwieldy compounds of Bhavabhuti muster their appearance occasionally. The author has the merit of avoiding the gross vulgarity. A variety of metres and a number of Prakrits are used in this short play.

and the son of two friends, Bhurivasu, the minister of the king of Pad navati, and Devarata, minister of the king of Vidarbha. The king of Padmavati, however, presses his minister to marry Malati to his friend Nandana who has a beautiful sister, Madayantika who is a friend of Malati. Madhava with his friend Makaranda goes to a festival and Malati also is sent there by Kamandaki. Both see each and fall in love. Both are further enamoured by enamoured by seeing the pictures drawn of each other by them. When the lovers are meeting in a temple of Siva, Madayantika is in danger of death from an escaped tiger, and is rescued by Makaranda. These two are then deeply in love. The king, however, resolved on the mating of Malati and Nandana. Madhava, despairing of success through Kamandaki's aid alone, decides to win the favour of the ghouls of the cemetery by an offering of fresh flesh. From the cemetery he hears cries in a Chamunda temple nearby. He rushes just in time to save Malati who was about to be offered as a sacrifice to the goddess Chamunda by the Kapalika, Aghoraghanta and his consort Kapalakundala, for which purpose he has stolen Malati from the palace. A struggle follows between Madhava and Aghoraghanta and the latter is slain. Kapalakundala swears to avenge her companion's death. Malati's marriage with Nandana is, however, fixed. Before the ceremony Kamandaki takes her to the temple of Love-goi wherefrom Malati and Madhava are sent away to a secret place, and Makaranda dressed as Malati goes back to the palace to marry Nandana. It is shewn how poor Nandana has been turned out by his false bride. On hearing this Madayantika comes to rebuke her newly married sister-in-law. But removing the bed-cover under which the false bride was lying down she recognizes her own lover Makaranda in the garb of Malati. They are both happy and elope to the hiding place of Malati and Madhava. The fugitives were succoured by Madhava and so splendidly routed their fces that the king, learning of it, gladly forgives the runaways. But in the tumult Malati has been stolen away by Kapalakundala. Act IX shows the wild search of Madhava for Malati. Saudamini, a pupil of Kamandaki, rescued Malati from Kapalakundala and with the good news the life of Madhava is saved who was about to commit suicide. Act X opens with 50

a scene of lament by Kamandaki and others. All become happy when Saudamini arrives with Malati Malati and Madhava and with the news that the king approves their marriage.¹ The Mahaviracharita is a Nataka in seven acts. It describes the main story of the Ramayana ending with Rama's return from Lanka.2 The Uttara-Rama-Charitra is also a Nataka in seven acts covering a period of twelve years. It concludes the story of Rima and Sita commencing with the banishment of Siti and with her re-appearance with her sons Lava and Kusa. Sita is sad after the departure of Janaka, who came to them after their return from Lanka. Rania consoles her. News is brought from Vasishtha that Rama should meet every wish of Sita as she is an expectant mother but rank first of all duty to his people. Lakshmana shows them the picture containing scenes of their wanderings. Sita wishes to revisit the hermitages on the Ganga. Rama prays that his magic arms may spontaneously pass to his sons to be born soo 11. Sita, wearied, falls asleep The Brahman Durmukha brings the news that some people doubt Sita's purity at Ravana's place. Rama decides to banish Sita and commands Lakshmana to take away Sita and leave her at the forest on the plea of her visiting the old scenes. In Act II a conversation between an ascetie Atreyi and the spirit of woods, Vasanti, reveals that Rama is celebrating the horse sacrifice, and that Valmiki is bringing up two fire boys to sing the Ramayana. Rama appears; sword in hand, after slaying an impious Sudra, Sambaka, who is purified at death by Rama and appears in spirit form and leads his benefactor to Agastya's hermitage. In Act III two rivers, Tamasa and Murala, report in a conversation that Sita abandoned 1 The main story, with the "episode of the two pairs of lovers, ending in elopments occurs in the Kathasarit-sagara and other collections of stories together with the motits of the sacrifice of a maiden by a magician and the offering of flesh to the demons to obtain their aid." 2 This Nataka of Bhavabhuti lacks the novelty of his Prakarana. The effort to give some unity to the plot covering fourteen years is unsuccessful. The characterization is feeble. The fatal 'error is the narration of events in long speeches in lieu of action."

would have killed her but Ganga preserved her and entrusted her two sons, born in her sorrow, to Valmiki to train. Then Sita in a spirit form appears unseen by mortals under Tamasa's care to revisit the scenes of her youth. Rama also appears. At the sight of the scene of their early love, both faint, but Sita, recovering touches unseen Rama who recovers only to relapse and be revived again. Finally Sita departs leaving Rama fainting. Act IV shows a hermitage where Janaka has retired from his kingly duties owing to the grief on Sita's banishment by Rama. Kausalya, Ram's mother, who has also left the palace life, meets Janaka. Both forget self in consoling each other. They are interrupted by the merry noises of the children of the hermitage. One, especially pre-eminent, is Lava who has a brother Kusa and who knows Rama only from Valmiki's work. The horse for Rama's sacrifice approaches, guarced by soldiers. Undaunted by the royal claim of sovereignty Lava decides to oppose it. Act V shows exchange of martial taunts between Lava and Chandraketu, Lakshman's son, who guards the horse for Rama, though each admires the other. In Act VI, a Vidyadhara and his wife, flying in the air, describe the battle of the youthful heroes and the magic weapons they use. The arrival of Rama interrupts the conflict. He admires Lava's bravery, which Chandraketu extols; he questions him but finds that the magic weapons came to him spontaneously. Kusa enters from Bharata's hermitage, whither he has carried Valmiki's poem to be dramatized. Rama Rama admires the two splendid youths who are, though he knows it not, his own sons. In Act VII all take part in a supernatural spectacle devised by Bharat and played by the Apsarasas. Sita's fortunes after her abandonment are depicted. She weeps and casts herself in the Bhagirathi. She reappears supported by Prithvi, the Earth goddess, and Ganga, each carrying a new-born infant. Prithvi declaims against the harshness of Rama, Gaiga excuses his acts. Both ask Sita to care for the children until they are old enough to hand over to Valmiki, when she can act as she pleases. Rana is carried away. He believes the scenes real. Now he intervenes in the dialogue, now he faints. Arundhati -uddenly appears with Sita, who goes back to her husband, and brings him back to consciousness. The people acclaim the queen. Valmiki

presents to them Rama's sons, Kusa and Lava, and Sita disappears underground.¹ The Venisamhara of Bhatta Narayana is dated before 800 because the author is cited by Vamana and Anandavardhana (800 A. D.) and was the grantee of a copper plate inscription of 840. The play is a Nataka in six acts. The story derived from the Mahabharata deals with the redressing (samhara) of Draupadi's braid (veni) by Bhima who avenged Draupadi's insult in being dragged by her braid by slaying Dubsasana. Draupadi vowed never to braid her hair until the insult is avenged. Bhima reveals his bitter anger by declaring that he will break with Yudhishthira if the peace be made with the Kauravas for which Krishna has been sent as an envoy, before the insult to Draupadi has been fully avenged. Sahadeva fails to appease him. Draupadi adds to his bitterness by relating a fresh insult in a careless allusion by Duryodhana's queen Bhanumati. Krishna returns unsuccessful in making peace and escaped detention in enemy's camp by the use of his magic arms. Bhanumat relates an ominous dream; a Nakula (ichneumon, also, the fourth Pandava brother) had slain a hundred serpents (representing all the Kaurava brothers). Duryodhana at first suspicious of betrayal inclines to fear but shakes of the depression, consoles the queen, and indulges in passages of love. He makes light of the fears of the mother of Jayadratha of Sindhu, slayer of Abhimanyu, son of Arjuna, who fears the revenge of the Pandavas. He despises the resentment of the Pandavas, gloates over the insults heaped on Draupadi, and mounts his charict for the battle. Act III shows a demoness and her husband feel 1 The Uttararamacharita, the best of Bhavabhuti's plays. "reaches no higher level as a drama" than the other two. He has made no serious effort to produce effective unity of events covering twelve years. The characterization is similarly uneffective. Lengthy descriptions and long compound- injure the dramatic effect. "As a poem the merits of the Uttararamacharita are patent and undeniable." The author himself proclaims as his own merits "richness and elevation of expression." There are also 'depth of thought and grandeur.' But Bhavabhuti was not content with simplicity, but is often too fond of elaborate and overloaded descriptions.

on the blood and flesh of the dead on the battle-field. They have been summoned thither for Ghatotkacha, son of Hidimba by Bhima, is dead and Hidimba has bidden them attend Bhima in his reverge on the Kuru host. They see Drona's death at the hands of Dhrishtadyumna, when he lets fall his arms, deceived by the lie of his son's death. They retire when Asvathaman advances filled with grief for his father's treacherous death. His uncle Kripa consoles him, and bids him ask Duryodhana for the command in the battle. It is refused and given to Karna who has poisoned Duryodhana's mind by falsely repeating that Drona had fought only to win the imperial authority for his son and sacrificed his life in disappointmet. Asvathaman quarrels with Karna and a duel is barely prevented. Asvathaman accuses Duryodhana of partiality, and will fight no more. In Act IV Duryodhana is shown wounded. Recovering he learns of Duhsasana's death and a Kuru disaster. A messenger from Karna reports the death of Karna's son and gives an appeal for aid written in Karna's blood. Duryodhana makes ready for battle. His aged parents, Dhritarashtra and Gandhari, with Sanjaya advise him to make peace. Act V shows Duryodhana refusing the advice of his parents and Sanjaya and is ready to go to the battlefield on hearing of Karna's death, unaidel Arjuna and Bhima appear. Bhima insists on their saluting with insults their aged uncle ; Duryodhana reproves them, but Arjuna insists that it is just retribution for the acquiescence of the aged king in Draupadi's ill treatment. Duryodhana defies Bhima, who would fight, but Arjuna forbids. Yudhisthira's messenger take them away. Asvathaman arrives and seeks reconciliation with Duryodhana, but receiving a cold reception withdraws, followed by Sanjaya bidden by Dhritarashtra to appease him. In Act VI a report comes to Yudhishthira and Draupadi of Duryodhana's death at Bhima's hands. But a Charvaka brings a false report that Bhima and Arjuna are dead. Yudhishthira and Draupadi resolve on death and the Rakshasa, Char vaka, departs in glee. When they are about to die a noise is heard. Yudhishthira deeming it Duryodhana rushes to arms, while Draupadi runs away. She is, however, caught by her hair by Bhima, whom Yudhishthira seizes. The error is discovered, and Draupadi binds up at last her

locks (veni). Nakula has slain the Charvaka. Arjuna and Vasudeva arrive, and all is well." The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadatta, son of Maharaja Bhaskaradattta or the minister Prithu, and the grandson of the feulatory Vatesvaradatta, is of uncertain date which, however, comes after the Venisamhara of Bhatta Narayana. In Act I Chanakya in a monologue expresses his detestation of the Nandas and determination to secure Rakshasa as minister for Chandragupta. His spy, Nipunaka, enters and reports that he has found a Jain Jivasiddhi hostile to Chandragupta, who is in reality Chanakya's agent. The scribe Sakatadasa is a real enemy. The jeweller Chandanadasa, who has sheltered Rakshasa's wife and child, is also an enemy. The signet ring of Rakshasa dropped Rakshasa dropped by his wife at the doors in pulling in her child gives a chance to Chanakya who writes a lester, has it copied in good faith by Sakata lasa and sealed with Rakshasa's seal. Sakatadasa is then arrested but suddenly rescued by Siddharthaka, another spy of the minister, who flees to Rikshas. Jivasiddhi is banished and Chandana jasa is flung into prison to await death for having harboured Rakshasa's family which has escaped. Chanakya then receives the news calmly that Bhigurayana and others of the court who are his emissaries have also fled. Act V shows Rakshasa's counter plot. Viradhaka in a serpent-charmer's disguise reports that the scheme to murder Chandraupta as passed under a coronation arch has failed, Vairo haka, uncle of Malayaketu, who had been crowned as the lord of half the real.r. being slain in lieu of Cua Iragupta. Abhayadatta, who offered him poison has been forced to drink the draught. Framodaka, the chamberlain, who was bribed is dead in misery. The bold spirits who were issued from a subterranean 1 "The play is on the whole undramatic, for the action is choked by narrative, and the vast abundance of detail served up in this form confuses and destroys intere-t, yet the characterization is good. On the other hand, we find in Bhatta Narayana many of the defects of Bhavabhuti, in special the fondness for long compounds both in Prakrit and Sanskrit prose and the same straming after effect" in the lengthy descriptions. Nonetheless the author has the merit, shared by Visakhadatta in the Mudrarakshasa, of fire and energy in dialogues,

; ORIGINAL LITERATURES 399 passage into the king's bed chamber have been detected and burnt as ants in their hiding place. Jivasiddhi is banished and Sakatadasa and Chandandasa have been condemned to the stake. But Sakatadasa returns with Siddharthaka who restores his seal to Rakshasa saying that he picked it up at Chandanadasa's house and begs to remain in his train. Viradhaka appears and reports that Chandragupta is tired of Chanakya. At this moment Rakshasa is asked to buy some precious jewels and he hastily bids Sakatadasa see to the price, little knowing that they are sent by Chanakya to entrap him. Act III displays that the minister has forbidden all feasting without telling the king. The monarch upbraids him the minister taunts him with ingratitude and insolence, resigns office and leaves. In Act IV Bhagurayana explains to Malayaketu that he and his followers who have taken the monarch's side desire to deal direct with him, because Rakshasa is no real foe of Chandragupta and if Chanakya were out of the way Rakshasa himself will ally with Chandragupta. Malayaketu is perplexed and his doubt increases when he overhears a conversation between Rakshasa and a courtier who reports the split between Chandragupta and Chanakya. Rakshasa appears and explains that Chandragupta is now in the palms of his hands which may mean alliance with Chandragupta. Malayaketu feels half-hearted for an advance for he is suspicious of Rakshasa. Rakshasa, however, consults Jivasiddhi about the suitable time about an advance but receives much astrological lore presaging a disaster. In Act V Jivasiddhi approaches Bhagurayana who grants permit to leave the camp. Bhagurayana tells that he fears Rakshasa who seeks to slay him, although Rakshasa formerly used him to poison Parvatesa. Malayaketu overhears this and is wild with rage, because he deemed his father s'ain by Chanakya. With difficulty Bhagurayana persuades Malayaketu punish Rikshasa if he proves guilty. Siddharthaka gives false evidence against Rakshasa and tells that he was to bear from Rakshasa to Chandragupta the sealed letter written by Sakatadisa, a jewel given by Malayaketu to Rakshasa who in his tur, gave it with his sealmark to Siddharthaka to rescue Sakatadasa, and a verbal message stating the terms demanded by the allied kings for their treachery against Malayaketu and the demand of Rakshasa himself for the removal to wait to

of Chanakya. Malayaketu confronts Rakshasa who admits that he has assigned the allied kings to guard the king's person which Malayaketu interprets as a device to facilitate their treachery. Rakshasa can deny the message but the seal and writing are genuine. Besides Rakshasa wears a fine jewel purchased from Chanakya's spy, which belonged to the king's father; Malayaketu considers this as the price of Rakshasa's treachery. Rakshasa is bewildered, Malayaketu is incensed and befooled; he gives orders to bury alive the allied kings who craved territory as their reward and trample then under elephants. In this confusion Rakshasa slips away to rescue his friend Chandanadasa. Act VI shows Rakshasa in the capital deploring the failure of all his ends, and the fate of his friend. A spy of Chandragupta approaches him and passes himself off as one seeking death for Chandanadasa's fate on which Chandragupta's mind is relentlessly set. He warns Rakshasa not to attempt a rescue of Chandanadasa because the executioners may slay him quicker in that case. Rakshasa sees that nothing save selfsacrifice is left for him. Act VII shows Chandandasa being led to death, his wife and child beside him. The wife is determined to die also, but Rakshasa intervenes, Chanakya and Chandragupta come on the scene. Rakshasa decides to accept the office of minister pressed on him by both. Thus he can save the life of Chandanadasa and his friends Malayaketu's massacre of the allied kings has broken the host into fragments and apparent rebels have captured him and his court. As minister of Chandragupta Rakshasa is permitted to free Malayaketu and restore his lands, Chandanadasa is rewarded, and a general amnesty approved.1 The Ramabhyudaya mentioned as a drama by Anandavardhana in his Dhanvaloka, and Dhanika and 1 "The interest in the action never flags. The characters of Chanakya and Rakshasa are excellent foils. Each is in his own way admirable. The minor figures are all interesting. The kings Chandragupta and Malayaketu represent the contrast of ripe intelligence with youthful ardour. Visakhadatta's diction is admirable, forcible and direct, the martial character of the drama reflects itself in the clearness and rapidity of his style. As an artist he uses images, metaphors and similies with tasteful moderation. He is unique among later dramatists in writing a real drama, not composing sets of elegant extracts." This is a high and well deserved praise from Professor Keith.

Visvanatha has not yet been found. It is ascribed to Yasovarman of Kanyakubja who is mentioned by Kalhana and who has patronized Bhavabhuti and Vakpati. Many Natakas, Natikas, and Prakaranas wherefrom quotations have been made in anthologies, are ascribed to Sivasvamin, who, according to Kalhana, lived under Avantivarman of Kashmir (955-983). These plays are entirely lost, The Tapasa-Vatsa raja-charita of Anangaharsha Maharaja, son of Narender Vardhana, is dated after the Ratnavali of Harsha. The author was known to Anandavardhana and Abbinavagupta. The story deals with the well-known theme of Vatsaraja. The Uttara Raghava of Mayuraja is known only by reference. The Parvati-parinaya, once ascribed to Bana, is now allotted to Vamana Bhatta Bana (1400). The Mallikamaruta, wrongly ascribed to Dandin, is the work of one Uddandin (17 th century). The Chhalita-Rama is referred to by Dhanika in his commentary on Dasarupa. Its author, date, and full story are not kuown. The Pandavananda is similarly mentioned by Dhanika, but nothing more is known about it. The Tarangadatta is mentioned by Dhanika. Its author and date are unknown. It is a Prakarana of the variety where the heroine is a courtesan. The Pushpadushita or Pushpabhushita as designated in the Sahitya-darpana is similarly mentioned by Dhanika. Its author and date are not known. It is a Prakarana of the variety in which the heroine is the married wife of the hero and is, therefore, a lady of good family. The Samudramanthana is mentioned in the Dasarupa as a drama of the type known as Samavakara. The author, date, and particulars are unknown. The Anargha-Raghava, a Nataka in seven acts, is ascribed to Murari, son of Srivardhamanaka and Tantumati. His date is uncertain but must be later than Bhavabhuti from whose Uttararamacharita he cites. Besides the Kasmirian poet Ratnakara (middle of ninth century A. D.) mentions Murari in his Haravijaya. In Act I while Dasaratha is engaged in conversation with Vamadeva the sage Visvamitra arrives to take Rama and Lakshmana to subdue the Rakshasas who have been troubling his hermitage. The king reluctantly agrees and the party departs and Dasaratha retires and mourns the departure of his sons. A cry behind the scene announces the approach of the 51

demoness Tadaka. Rama hesitates to slay a female but finally departs for the duty. He returns after slaying the demoness and describes the rising of the moon. Visvamitra then suggests a visit to Janaka and Mithila after description of both. Janaka's daughter Sita is now ripe for marriage and Ravana seeks her hand. Janaka accompanied by Satananda receives Rama, but hesitates to put him to the severe test involved in bending Siva's bow. Ravana's envoy arrives to demand Sita's hand, but indignantly declines the request that his master should bend the bow. Kama is allowed to make the trial. Report cones that Rama has wonderfully broken the bow. He is promised Sita's hand and other sons of Dasaratha also are awarded consorts. Ravana's minister Malyavant laments the failure of his scheme to win Sita. Surpanakha arrives from Videha and reports the union of hama and Sita. Surpanakha assures the disguise of Manthara in order to secure the banishment of Rama and Sita to the forest, wherefrom Sita may be stolen. Dasaratha resolves to transfer his kingdom to Rama. But Manthara bears a fatal message from Kaikeyi, bidding Dasaratha grant the two boons of the banishn.ent of Rama and the coronation of Bharata. In Act V a conversation between Jambavant and an ascetic Sravana report the advent and doings of Rama in the forest. Sravanna goes to Sugriva to bespeak a kindly welcome for wayfarers. Jambavant overhears a dialogue between Ravana, disguised as a juggler, and Lakshmana. The vulture Jatayu then reports the appearance of Ravana Maricha in the forest. Jambavant goes to warn Sugriva of the danger, while Jatayu sees Sita being carried away by Ravana and pursues him. Rama and Lakshmana then appear wandering in grief in vain search. They hear a cry and see the friendly chief, Guha, being assailed by the headless Kavandha. Lakshmana rescues him, but in doing so, knocks off the tree the skeleton of Dundubhi. This enrages Valin who challenges Rama to battle. Lakshmana and Guha describe the fight and death of Valin. Voices from behind the scenes report the coronation of Sugriva and his determination to aid Rama in the recovery of Sita. Voices from behind announce the departure for battle and death of Kumbhakarna and Meghanida. Then Ravana goes for the battle. The struggle is described by two Vidyadhara.

Act VII shows the departure from Lanka by Kuber's car of Rama. Sita, Lakshmana, Vibhishana, and Sugriva. They travel by the celestial regions and go to Ayodhya, where the priest Vashishtha waits with Rama's brothers to crown him king. The Balaramayana, the Balabharata, the Viddha- sala-bhanjika, and the Karpura-manjari are ascribed to Raja Sekhara. The Balaramayana is a mahanataka as it has ten acts. The story is the old one, and shows the heroic deeds of Rama's early life. The act closes with the consecration of Rama to the throne of Ayodhya. The Balabharata is an unfinished Mahanataka in ten acts. It relates the old story of the Mahabharata. It covers the marriage of Draupadi and the gambling scene with the ill-treatment of Draupadi at the court of the Kauavas. It was written for Mahipala of Kanauj, It is equally unsuccessful as a play. It has also no poetic merits. The Karpuramanjari is a Natika in four acts; but it is known as a Sattaka because it is in Prakrit, none of the characters speaking Sanskrit. It is also an old story; it deals with the king Chandapila of Kanauj and his beloved Karpuramanjari, the Kuntala princess, who is a cousin of the queen. A magician displays the damsel to the king and queen. The apparition tells her tale, and the queen takes her as an attendant. The king and the maiden fall at once in love. In a letter the maiden avows her passion. The queen has found out the love and has confined the maiden, while the king has made a subterranean passage giving access to her prison. In Act III the princess and the king enjoy a flirtation in the garden, when the queen discovers them. Act IV shows that the end of the passage opening on the garden has been blocked, but another passage has been made to the sanctuary of Chamunda, the entrance being concealed behind the statue. Thus the prisoner can play a game of hide-and-seek with the queen and this enables her to carry out a cleverruse invented by the magician to secure the queen's blessing for the wedding. The queen is induced to demand that the king shall marry a princess of Lata who will secure him imperial rank. She is still at her home, but the magician will fetch her to the palace. The wedding goes on merrily,

but the princess is no other than Karpuramanjari. The queen has unwittingly accomplished the lovers' desire." The same motif is repeated in the Viddha-sala bhanjika. It is a Natika in four acts. The Lata king Chadravarman sends to the court of his overlord Vidyadharamalla his daughter Mrgankavati in the guise of his son and heir. Vidyadharamalla recounts a dream in which a beautiful maid had cast a collar of pearls round his neck. He is haunted by her. He finds her in sculptured form (salabhanjika) in the picture gallery. He has a further glimpse of her in the disguised Lata prince. The queen proposes to marry Kuvalayamala of Kuntala to the pretended boy. Her foster sister, Mekhala, has promised Vidushaka a lady Amabaramala (air garland). To his disgust she turns out a mere slave. The king calms him. Together they watch in hiding Mrigankavati playing in the garden and hear her reading a letter of love. Act IV shows a plot of the queen to punish the king. She induces him to marry the sister of the pretended boy, meaning that he should find that he has married a boy. The marriage is completed. News comes from Chandravarman that a son is born. The queen is, therefore, requested to dispose in marriage of his daughter, who may resume her sex. The queen is thus tricked and deceived. With dignity she bestows on her husband both Mrigankavati and Kuvalayamala. News is brought that the last rebels are subdued and the king's suzerainty is recognized everywhere.2 The Svapna-dasanana and four other unknown dramas are ascribed by Rajasekhara in a verse to Bhimata who is decribed as Kalinjarapati and may, therefore, be connected with the Chandella king Harsha, a contemporary of Mahipala (914) of Kanyakubja and 1 This play was produced at the request of Rajasekhara's wife. The story of the Vatsa king and Vasavadatta is borrowed and spoiled. "The author is devoid of power to create character. The heroine is without merit. The Vidushaka is tedious. The intrigue is poorly managed. The confusion of exits and entrances is difficult to follow and unsuitable for acting." 2 The borrowed story of the Karpuramanjari and ViddhaSala-bhanjika is the same and similarly spoiled the original story of Vatsa king and Vasavadatta. In both these dramas the power of creating a character is lacking. "The taste of giving two brides to the king at once is deplorable."

the patron of Rajasekhara. Nothing more is known about the author and his dramas. The Naishadhananda and the Chandakausika are ascribed to Khemisvara or Kshemendra (not the Kashmirian poet of that name) who asserts his patron Mahipala (914) of Kanyakubja's victory over the Karnatas probably referring to the contest against the Rashtrakuta Indra III who also claims victory over Mahodaya or Kanyakubja. The Naishadhananda is a Nataka in seven acts. It deals with the epic story of Nala and Damayanti as given in the Mahabharata. The Chanda-kausika enacts the well known story of the king Harishchandra in seven acts. It opens with the scene where Harish Chanira rebukes the Kausika Visvamitra for the apparent sacrifice of a damsel on the fire. As the sage was merely bringing the sciences under control became irritated (chanda) at the interruption by the king and cursed him. The king secures the sage's pardon at a heavy cost, the surrender of the earth and a thousand gold pieces. To secure the money the king sells his wife and child to a Brahman at Kasi and himself to a dead-body burner as a cemetery keeper there One day his wife brings the dead body of their child, but it turns to be a trial of his character. His son recovers from the effect of a snake-bite. His wife is rescued. The sage being highly pleased with the unique observance of truth (satya) returns the kingdom of whole earth to the king, who, however, transfers it to his son.' In addition to these dramas of the classical reputation there are numerous plays of lesser importance and of later age which are briefly noticed below under the nine or ten groups. Of the Nataka type several later dramas and fragmentary ones exist. The Prasanna-Raghava in seven acts is ascribed to the logician Jayadeva (1:200), son of Mahadeva and Sumitra, of Kundina in Berar. The story of the Ramayana is repeated here. The Adbhuta-darpana in ten acts is ascribed to Mahadeva. It bears influence of Jayadeva. "Its ten acts cover only the period from Angada's mission to 1 The plot is as poor as the execution of the piece.

Ravana to the coronation of Rama. It introduces the Vidushaka contrary to the rule in Rama drama. There are several dramas dealing with the Krishna legend. The The Pradumnabhyudaya is ascribed to the Kerala prince Ravivarman (1266). The Vidagdhamadhava in seven acts and the Lalita-madhava in ten acts are ascribed to Rupagcsvamin (1532), the minister of Husain Shah. The theme of these dramas is the love of Krishna and Radha. The author supports here the movement of Chaitanya of Navadvipa. The Kamsavadha in seven acts is based on Bhasa's Balacharita as well as other plays. It was written by Sesha Krishna for Todar Mall, the minister of Akbar. The Rukmini-paripaya was written by Rama Varman of Travancore (1735-1787). The Smdama-charita was written by Samaraja Dikshita (1681) depicting Krishna's generosity to a poor friend. The Chitrabharata of Kshemendra of Kashmir (middle of eleventh century) is yet untraced. The Subhadra-Dhananjaya and TapatiSamvarana (about eleventh century) are ascribed to the Kerala prince Kula-sekhara Varman. The Partha-parakrama, a Vyayoga, is ascribed to Prahlada na-deva, brother of Dharavarsha, king of Chandravati (about (about 1200). 1200). The Harakeli-nataka is ascribed to the Chamana king Visaladeva Vigraharaja (1163). The Parvati parinaya, once thought of Bana, belongs to Vamana Bhatta Bana (about 1400). The Hara-gauri-vivaha is ascribed to Jagaj-jyotir-malla of Nepal (1617-163*). 'It is rather an opera than a play'. In it the vernacular verses take the place of Praktits. The Bhairavananda is ascribed to the Nepalese poet Manika (end of fourteenth century). The Bhartriharinirveda of Harihara (fifteenth century) represents the poet Bhartrihari as desolated by his wife's death and through despair on a false runour of his own death. But being consoled by a Yogin (ascetic) he attains indifference (nirveda). And when his wife is recalled to life neither she nor their child has any attraction for him. The Lalita-Vigraharaja-nataka is ascribed to Somadeva who wrote (about twelfth century) in honour of the Chahamana king, Visaladeva Vigraharaja. It is preserved only in part in an inscription. The Prataparudra-kalyana was written by Vidyanatha (about 1300) to celebrate his patron, a king of Warangal. The Hammira-mada-mardana was written by Jaya-sinha

Suri (between 1219 and 1229). The author was a priest of the temple of Muni-sukrata at Broach. He claims that it includes all nine sentiments. It was, however, written to celebrate Jayantasinha, son of Vastupala, brother of Tejahpala, minister of Vigrahadeva of Gujarat. The contents of the Rajaraja-nataka are not known. It is stated, however, that the play was annually performed in a temple of Siva by order of the Chola king Rajaraja I of Tanjore (eleventh century). The Gangadasa-pratapa-vilasa of Gangadhara celebrates the struggle of a Champanir prince against Muhammad II of Gujarat (1443-1452). The Vasantika svapna is an adaptation by R. Krishnamachari (in 1892) from the Shakespear's Midsummer Night's dream. Of the allegorical Natakas the Prabodha-chandrodaya of Krishna Misra (1042) is a play in six acts. It is devoted to the defence of the Advaita form of the Vishnu doctrine, which is a combination of Vedanta (Jnana) with Vaishnavism (bhakti). In act I Love in conversation with Desire that the Supreme reality being united with Illusion, has a son spirit who again have two children, Discrimination (viveka) and Confusion (moha). The offspring of the latter gained strength and menaced the former and his offspring. The former, however, is sure to conquer but the danger is the prophecy that there will arise knowledge (prabodha) and Science (Vidya) from the union of Discrimination (viveka) and Theology (Upanishad); but these two are long since parted and their union seems unlikely. The two flee while Discrimination (viveka) talks with one of his wives Reason (mati). She favours and brings about his reunion with Theology (Upanishad). Act II shows Confusion in fear of overthrow hastens by use of Falsity (dambha) to Benares as the key of the world. Egoism, grandfather of Falsity, visits Benares and discovers Falsity. Confusion enters triumphantly his new Capital and the Materialist Charvaka supports him. But Duty rises in revolt. Theology wants reunion with Discrimination. Confusion sends Piety, daughter of Faith (sraliha) to prison and orders Heresy (mithya-drishti) to separate Theology and Faith. Act III shows Fiety in sad plight having lost her mother Faith and about to commit suicide from which Pity dissuades her. She searches in vain for her mother Faith in Digambara Jainism, Buddhism and Soma-ism

(Brahmanical sacrifice); each appears with a wife Faith, but she cannot recognize her mother in these distorted forms. Buddhism and Jainism quarrel. Soma-ism enters and makes them drunk with alcohol and pleasure, and takes them in search of Piety. Act 1 V shows Faith and Duty escaping being devoured by a demoness through trust in Vishnu. She induces Discrimination to muster his leaders, Contemplation, Patience and Contentment, to go to Benares and to start the battle. In Act V the battle is over; Confusion and his offspring are dead. Spirit, however, mourns the loss of Confusion and Activity. The Vedanta doctrine of Vyasa appears, disabuses his mind of error, and resolves to settle down as a hermit with one wife, Inactivity. Act VI shows the Ancestor of all Being still under the influence of Confusion, because his Companion Illusion supports the Spirits whom Confusions dispatched before his death to confuse him. But his friend Reasoning shows him his error and he drives them away. Peace of heart reunites Theology and Discrimination. She tells of her mishaps with Cult and Exegesis, Nyaya and Sakhya, and reveals to Being that he is the Supreme Lord. He feels doubtful but his difficulty is cleared away by Judgment (Science), the immediate supernatural child of the reunion of the spouses. Trust (Bhakti) in Vishnu appears to applaud the result." The Maharaja-parajaya in five acts, an imitation allegorical play, is attributed to Yasahpala, the son of minister Dhanadeva and Rukmini, of Modha Bania caste, who served. probably as governor to the king Abhayapala (1229-1232). It describes the conversion of the Chalukya king of Gujarat, Kumarapala, to Jainism at the efforts of Hemachandra. Hemachandra and Vidushaka in the play are personifications of good and evil qualities. 1 It is indeed very clever of Krishnamisra to combine the plot based on the strife of races in the Mahabharata and the love story of a Natika. There is also the ingenuity of fitting in the Vedanta doctrine of the Absolute the devotion of the Vaishnava creed. There is also some comedy in the exchange of views of Egoism and Falsity and fun in the scenes between Buddhism, Jainism and Soma-i-m. His Sanskrit stanzas are effective and stately in Sardula Vikridita and Vasantatilaka is effectively used in his rhymed Prakrit stanzas. The play, however, has no dramatio force and can hardly be performed successfully.

Of the same type is the Samkalpa-suryodaya of Venkatanatha of the fourteenth century which is "excessively dreary." More SO is the ChaitanyaChandrodaya of Kavikarnapura. It is an account of Chaitanya's success, which wholly fails to convey any suggestion of his spiritual power. Similarly the Siva allegory is dramatized in the two Saiva dramas, the Vidya-parinayana which was written at the end of the seventeenth century, and the Jivanandana which was written in the eighteenth century. As plays they have no merits. The Karnasundari, a Natika (small drama) of Bilhana (1080-1090), Was written to celebrate the wedding in advanced age of Karnadeva Trailokyamalla of Anhilvad (1064-1094) with Miyanalladevi, daughter of the Karnata king Jayakesin. The story is a jumble of reminiscences of Kalidasa, Harsha and Rajasekhara. The Chalukya king is to marry Karnasundari, daughter of the Vidyadhara king. The minister brings her into the harem. The king first sees her in a dream, then in a picture. He falls in love, and the queen is jealous ; she breaks into on their meeting, and at once assumes Karnasundari's guise to present herself to the king. Next she tries to marry the king to a boy in Karnasundari's clothes, but the minister adroitly substitutes the real one. The usual tidings of triumph abroad ends the play. The Vijayasri, otherwise known as Parijatamanjari, is attributed to Mada-Bala-sarasvati, the preceptor of the Paramara king Arjunavarman of Dhara (thirteenth century). Two acts are preserved on a stone at Dhara. 'A garland falls on the breast of Arjunavarman after his victory over the Chalukya king, Bhimadeva II, and becomes a maiden. She is the daughter of the Chalukya. The usual sequence of events leads to her wedlock with the king. The Vrisha-bhanuja of Mathuradasa (of a later date) deals with the love of Krishna and Radha. Radha is jealous of a portrait which Krishna has. lt, however, turns out to be one of herself and the play ends happily. The Siva-narayana-bhanja-mahodaya of Narasimha is a philosophic play in honour of a prince of Keonjhor. No later writer attempted to imitate the masterpiece, Mrichhakatika. But there is a slavish imitation of Bhavabhuti's Malati-madhava. The Mallika- 52

maruta, in five acts, is ascribed to one Uddandin or Uddandanitha (not the famous Dandin), a court poet of a Zemindar of Calicut (Kukkutakroja) in the seventeenth century. A magician Mandakini is eager to arrange a marriage between Malliki, daughter of the minister cf a Vidyadhara king, and Maruta, son of the minister of the Kuntala king. They meet and fall in love but match is disturbed as the Ceylon king wants to marry Mallika. Maruta's friend Kalakantha also loves Ramayantiki. The usual temple scene follows; elephants frighten the two maidens and rescues take place. An emissary of the Ceylon king falsely report Kalakantha's death, Maruta attempts suicide but is prevented by his friend's appearance. Mallika is stolen by a Rakshasa, Maruta rescues her, but he is himself stolen and finally overcomes the demon. The king of Ceylon is deceived in marriage; Maruta and Mallika elope, and Kalakantha and Ramayantika follow their example. The second abduction of Mallika takes place, the search for her follows, and at last she is discovered. All are united and the king and parents accord their sanction. The Kaumudi mitrananda in ten acts is ascribed to the Jain writer Rimachandra, the pupil of Hemachandra (between 1173 and 1176). It is in the form of a modern pantomime being the play of a number of Katha incidents and whole undramatic. The Prabuddha rauhineya, in six acts, was written by Jain Ramabhadra Muni, pupil of Jayaprabha Suri (about 1169) as referred to in Hemachandra's Yogasastra for performance in the temple of Tirthankara Rishava on the occasion of a procession festival. A bandit, Rauhineya, steals away a married woman Madanavati and commits other robberies but being liberated by penitence is ultimately reformed The Mudrita-kumudachandra of Yasas-chandra, describes the controversy in 1124 A. D. between the Svetambara Jain teacher Deva Suri, and the Digambara Kumuda Chandra. The title of play is derived from the defeat of Kumuda Chantra. Of the Prahasanas, the Larakamaleka or Lataka malika was written by Sankhadhara Kaviraja under Govinda Chandra of Kananj in the twelfth century. Lovers of Madanamanjari seek the aid of the go-between Dantura. The comic is supplied by the dentist Jantuketu who

is called to extract a fishbone from the throat of Madanamanjari. His antics caused laughter by which the bone is dislodged. The bargaining of the lovers is satirized. The marriage between the go-between herself and a Digambara also causes mirth and laughter. The Dhurta-samagama is ascribed to Jyotirisvara Kavi-sekhara, grandson of Dhuresvara who wrote under the Vijayanagara king Narasimha (1487-1507) or son of Dhira Simha who flourished under Harisimha Simraon. The play relates the contest of the religious mendicant Visva-nagara (lover of everybody) and his pupil Durachara (bad conduct) over the beautiful Anangasena. On her insistence the matter is referred to the arbitration of the Brahman Asaj-jati (impure race) who decides to impound the damsel to himself, despite the attempt of Vidushaka to get her for his own use. The barber Mulanasaka (root-destroyer) turns up to demand payment of a debt from Anangasena. She refers him to Asaj-jati who pays him with his pupil's purse. The pupil demands the barber's care. The latter ties him up. The Vidushaka comes and rescues him. The Hasyarnava (ocean of laughter) of Jogadisvara of unknown date and identity is a popular farce. The king Anayasindhu (ocean misrule) finds that all goes ill in his realm: wives are chaste, husbands constant, the good respected, and Brahmans do not make shoes. He goes, at the advice of his minister, to the house of a go-between, Bandhura, to study the character of his people, and is presented with her daughter Mrigankalekha. The court chaplain with his pupil comes and both are attracted to the damsel. After seeing the arrival and performance of a comic doctor whose medicine is worse than the illness of Bandhura, a barber, a police, and an astrologer, the king disappears. Then the contest to secure the damsel takes place between the chaplain and his pupil, and another pair of teacher and pupil. Finally the two older disown the damsel and the boys content them selves with Bandhura, who is delighted with the turn of events. The celebration of these double marriages is left to another holy man, Mahanindaka, who also desires to share Bandhura. The Kautuka-sarvasva of unknown date was written by Gopinatha Chakravarti for the autumn Durgapuja in Bengal. The licentious king, Kalivatsala,

addicted to every kind of vice illtreats the virtuous Brahman Satyasraya. Everything is wrong in the state: people are oppressive and skilled in falsehood, there is contempt for the pious, and the general is coward. Rishis are shown practising immoralities which they recount in the Puranas. The king proclaims free love but is found involved in a dispute over a courtesan. He is summoned back to the queen. The courtesan is annoyed and everybody hastens to console her. And the king, obligingly to please her, banishes all Brahmans from the realm. The Dhurta-nartaka of Samaraja Dikshita belongs to the seventeenth century. A Saiva ascetic, Muresvara, entrusts to his pupils on having to go away a dancing girl to whom he was devoted. When they fail to secure the damsel for themselves they denounce him to the king, Papachara, who being amused allows the saint to keep the damsel. The Kautuka-ratnakara probably earlier than the Dhurta-nartaka of the seventeenth century was written by a chaplain of Lakshmana Manikyadeva of Bhuluya. The play centres round the stealing of the queen despite the police guard and the adventures of the courtesan who is to take the queen's place at the spring festival. The Hasyachudamani of Vatsaraja (about 1163-1203) in one act shows as hero, Jnana-rasi, an Acharya of the Bhagavata, exhibiting by various acts of tricks and fooleries his supernatural power in tracing lost articles and buried treasures. His disrespectful pupil delights in interpreting literally his remarks The Bhana type of plays is also comical like the Prahasana type. Bhanas are, however, mostly in comic monologues. Both are equally coarse. Both exhibit their command of Sanskrit vocabulary. The Sringara-bhushana is ascribad to Vamana Bhatta Bana (about 1500). The Chief Vita, Vitasasekhara, comes to see the courtesan Anangamanjuri on the evening of the spring festival. He goes to the street of the courtesan and describes to himself the courtesan, ram-fights, cock-fights, boxing, a quarrel between two rivals, the different stages of the day, and the pleasures of the festival. The Sringara-tilaka or Ayyabhana was written on the same lines by Ramabhadra Dikshita to rival the Vasanta-tilaka or

Ammabhana of Vaishnava Varadacharya or Ammad Acharya. It was performed at the festival of the marriage of the goddess Minakshi of the Madura temple. In it the hero Bhujanga-sekhara on the departure of his beloved ceurtesan Hemangi to her husband describes to himself imaginary snake-charmers, magic shows of gods, their mountains and so forth. Finally, he succeeds in rejoining Hemangi. The Saradatilaka of Sankara shows similar descriptions in the imaginary city of Kolahalapura (city of uproar) and the satire extends to the Jangavas or Sai vas, and Vaishnavas In the Sringara-sarvasva of Nalla Kavi (about 1700), the hero Ananga-sekhara parts from his beloved courtesan Kanaklata but is finally united by the advent of an elephant which terrifies all others in the street, but is worshipped by the lover as Ganesa, and Siva's answer to his prayer for help The Rasasadana by a Yuvaraja of Kotilinga in Kerala shows. the hero, a Vita, who has promised his friend Mandaraka to look after his beloved courtesan for him. He goes about with her to a temple and then to his house. He wanders out into the street, talks and describes at large. Then he goes to see a lady in a neighbouring town and on his return home finds the lovers united again. The Karpura-charitra of Vatsaraja (about 1163-1203) shows the gambler, Karpura, describing in monologue his rivalry, gambling and love. The Mukundananda of Kasipati Kaviraja (about thirteenth century) illustrates a combined Prahasana (farce) and Bhana (comic monologue). The hero Bhujanga-sekhara recounts his adventures and also alludes to the sports of Krshna and the cowherdesses. Of the Vyayogas the Kiratarjuniya of Vatsaraja (about 1163 to 1203) is based on Bharavi's great poem of that name. It relates the same story of Arjuna's fight with Siva in the guise of a hunter and securing the boon from the god. It illustrates the technical character of Vyayoga. After a Nandi (invocation) celebrating Siva's consort, the Sutradhara enters, immediately followed by the Sthapaka who insists on his reciting a further Nandi of the trident of Siva. The Saugandhikaharana of Visvanatha (about 1316) deals with Bhima's visit to Kubera's lake to fetch water-lilies for Draupadi, his struggle first with Hanumant and then with the Yakshas, and his final victory. The Pandavas then meet at Kubera's home

and Draupadi gets the desired flowers. The Dhananjayavijaya of Kanchana Pandita (of unknown date) deals with the prowess of Arjuna in defeating Duryodhana and the Kauravas when they raid the cattle of Virata. Indra and others describe the contest in which Arjuna uses magic weapons. The play ends with the giving to Arjuna's son, Abhimanyu, the hands of Uttara, daughter of the king Virata. The Bhima-vikrama-vyayoga of Mokshaditya exists in a manuscript of 1328. It describes the heroic deeds of Bhima. The Nirbhayabhima of Ramachandra (later half of twelfth century) similarly shows the fearless deeds of Bhima. The Rukmini-harana of the Vatsaraja (about 1163 to 1203) in four acts illustrates the Ihamriga type. The play opens with a dialogue by theSutradhara. After the Nandi the Sthapaka reports that the play was performed at moon-rise during the festival of Chakrasvamin. The story is based on the Mahabharata and the play shows Krishna depriving king Sisupala of Chedi of his promised bride Rukmini. The Vira-Vijaya of Krishnamisra of later date is the second example of this type. The third example is the Sarva vinoda Nataka of Krishna Avadhuta Ghatikasata Mahakavi. Of the Dimas the Tripura-daha of Vatsaraja (1163-1203) in four acts illustrates the type. It describes the destruction of the city of Tripurasura by Siva. The play closes with the homage paid by the gods and the seers alike to alike to Mahesa who is bashful. Indra pronounces the benediction. The Krishan vijaya of Venkata-varada by Ghanasyama is a later one dealing with the conquests of Krishna. The Manmathonmathana of Rama belongs to about 1820. Of the Samavakira type the Samudra-manthana of Vatsaraja (1163-1203) deals with the well known story. In three acts it illustrates the type. Here after the Nandi the Sutradhara and the Sthapaka in conversation lead to the appearance of the chief character. The play is The play is based on the legend of the churning of the ocean by the gods and the demons. Vishnu gets Lakshmi who appears in Act I with her companions, Lajji and Dhriti, gazing on a picture of her beloved. The unpopularity of the type is proved by the absence of other dramas of this kind. Ankas or Utsrishtikankas implies a play within a play and hence so called. The Unmatta-Raghabha of

Bhaskara Kavi (about fourteenth century), a contemporary of Sayana, is "a stupid imitation of Act .IV of the Vikramorvasi". It shows Rama and Lakshmana pursuing the golden deer; Sita, by the curse of Durvasas, is changed into a gazelle herself. Rima returns and wonders miserably in search of her, but finally gets her by the help of Agastya. The Krishnabhyudaya of Lokanatha Bhatta was written for the rain-time procession of Hastigiri Vishnu in Kanchi. The Sarmishtha-Yajati of Krishna-kavi, of modern age, describes the well known story of an old king who borrowed youth from his son in order to further enjoy the life but later got tired of the change. Sattakas are short plays in Prakrit as illustrated by the Anandasundari of Ghanasyama, which is a tedious work. The author was a minister of the Maratta Tukkoji. The Skingara-manjari of the Almora poet Visvesvara belongs to the eighteenth century. Illustrations for all the Uparupakas are not available. The Dana-keli-kaumudi of Rupa Gosvamin is an example of the Bhanika type. The other example is the Subhadra-harana of Madhava (about 1610). The play shows the old legend of the elopement of Krishna's friend Arjuna with Subhadra. Krishna meets her by going to her father's house as a beggar. Chhaya-nataka or shadow plays, as they exist in few late examples, resemble ordinary dramas. Except the title no other indication of their character is available. The Dutangada of Subhata (about 1248) enacted in favour of the dead king Kumarapala at the court of Tribhuvanapala, a Chalukya king of Anahilapatana. It shows Angada as an ambassador to Ravana to demand back Sita Ravana endeavours to show that Sita is in love with him. Angada is not deceived and leaves Ravana with threats. Finally Ravana met his doom. The Subhadra parinayana of Vyasa Sriramadeva (fifteenth century) under the Kalachuri princes princes of Raypur describes the old story of Arjuna's elopement of Subhadra. The Ramabhyudaya of the same author deals with the conquest of Lanka, the fire ordeal of Sita and their return to Ayodhya. The Pandavabhyudaya of the same author describes in two acts Draupadi's birth and marriage. The Savi ri-charita of Saskaralala (1582) describes the story of Savitri and Satyavan. The Hariduta of unknown author and date tells the story of the Dutavakya of Bhasa

concerning Krishna's mission to the court of Duryodhana to seek peace on behalf of the Pandavas. Mahanatakas should ordinarily imply dramas of bigger size. Professor Luders summarizes their main feature by saying that they are "written mainly in verse, with little of prose; the verses being of narrative as opposed to the dramatic type. There is no Prakrit. There is no Vidushaka, but the number of persons appearing is large." These characteristics are found in the Dutangada which has been classified under the Chhaya-nataka by Professor Keith. This type is, however, preserved in the Hanu-man-nataka, of which there are two recensions, one in nine or ten acts by Madhusudana and the other in fourteen acts by Damodaramisra. In Act I after the brief Nandi, there being no prologue, a narrative follows down to the arrival of Rama to Mithila for winning Sita by breaking the bow of Siva. It leads up to the scene with Parasurama, and Sita's marriage. Act II describes Sita's love for Rama. Act III describes Rama's departure in chase of Maricha in deer shape. Acts IVVII describe the arrival of Rama's forces in Lanka for the recovery of Sita. Act VIII shows Angada's mission to Ravana The remaining Acts describe the conflict, conquest and return of Rama's party to Ayodhya. This is unfit for stage. This is an example of the purely literary dramas in Sanskrit. Of the Yatras or operas the Gitagovinda written in entriely Sanskrit without Prakrit by Jayadeva under the king Lakshmanasena (twelfth century) exhibits songs sung by Krishna, Radha and her companion, intermingled with lyric stanzas of the poet, describing their position, or the emotions excited, and addressing prayer to Krishna It is a poem capable of a quasi-dramatic play. The subject is the love of Krishna for Radha, the estrangement of the lovers, and their final reconciliation. It reveals a highly developed show of Krishna religion. The Gopala-chandrika of Ramakrishna of Gujarat, later than the Mahanataka and the Bhagavat, is a literary drama almost entirely in Sanskrit. At the opening the actress who asks in Prakrit is told by the Sutradhara that the play should be in Sanskrit. Krishna receives the worship of his votaries in the vesture of a herdsman. The sports of Krishna and his comrades, and of Radha and her friends, are introduced in Act II. In Act III

Vrinda representing Lakshmi relates the identity of Krishna and Radha; Krishna is the highest being and Ratha is his Sakti (consort). Act IV shows the theft by Krishna of the clothes of the maidens when they bathe in the Yamuna. He demands that they should come out of water and take the clothes and should not bear any shyness if they are really devoted to him, he being superior to the Vedas, to the asceticism and to the sacrifice. The last Act V describes the Rasalila. The spirits of the moon and the autumn lament that the maidens are not dancing with Krishna in Rasa. Krishpa summons his power, Yogamaya, to persuade the relations to send the maidens to him. Then he himself goes to them and enchants the girls by playing on his flute. The play is essentially mystic and religious in character and resemble the Gitagovinda. "The Sanskrit drama may legitimately be regarded as the highest product of Indian poetry, and as summing up in itself the final conception of the literary art achieved by the very self-conscious creators of Indian literature." But like many other achievements of Sanskrit Culture and Hindu Civilization the drama has suffered gradual deterioration from the zenith of its development during the time of Kalidasa in the fifth century after Christ. This degredation was noticeable especially during the Muslim invation when a political movement was started to create a distaste and impracticability for everything noble in our civilization. Performance of dramas was naturally limited to King's palace and God's temples in big cities and centres of pilgrimage. Thus the audience comprised the specially privileged ones at the earlier period. In the time of the Bengal Yatras like the Gitagovinda and operas the audience included the ordinary folks also. But as a result of the foreign invasions the ordinary people became more and more unfamiliar not only with Sanskrit language but even with the Prakrits of dramas. Thus in later period an effort was made in some places to replace the Prakrits by vernaculars of the place to suit the need of the local population. The large number and variety of our dramas, however, indicate the love of the readers and writers for the plays which served as mirror of the whole Hindu society for at least two thousand years. In no other class of literature such a continued and complete picture is available. 53