Glories of India (Culture and Civilization)
by Prasanna Kumar Acharya | 1952 | 182,042 words
This book, “Glories of India on Indian Culture and Civilization”, emphasizes the importance of recognizing distinct cultural traits across different societies. The historical narrative of Indian civilization highlights advancements in agriculture, medicine, science, and arts, tracing back to ancient times. The author argues for the need to understa...
Introduction to the Aranyakas and Upanishads
The Aranyakas or forest texts are the are the appendices to the Brahmanas as stated above. Originally they were intended to be the guide books for the retired Vanaprastha or forest life. They were of a secret character and for that reason might only be taught and learnt in the forest, and not in the villages. Of the four Asramas (stages) of the Brahmanical ideal of life, viz. Brahmacharya for student life, Garhastya for the house holder life, Vanaprastha for the retired life in forest, and Sannyasa or life of complete renunciation, the importance of the forest life was emphasised by the separate existence of the Aranyakas or the forest texts. The Aitareya and Kaushitaki Aranyakas belong to the Rigveda. Tittiriya to the Black Yajurveda, and the Madhyandina-Vajasaneyi and Kanviya Brahmanas to the White Yajurveda. No Brahmanas of the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda exist. The nain contents of these texts deal no longer with rules for the performance of the sacrifices and the explanation of the ceremonies but elucidate the mysticism and symbolism of sacrifice, and priestly philosophy. The term 'upanishad' literally implies 'sitting near'. Hence its original meaning is 'the sitting down of the initiated pupil near the teacher (guru or preceptor) for the purpose of a confidential communication of the secret doctrine (rahasya) concerning the relation between the Creator and the created individuals. This secret knowledge was not intended for the masses but was communicated only within a narrow circle of privileged persons. This system is still continued especially among the varicus classes of hermits and ascetics. The secret and mysterious doctrine of the Upanishads took, however, various forms. Generally it is a profound philosophical doctrine, but at times it refers to 'some futile symbolism or allegory, and a symbolical sacrifice serving as magic which are actually jumbled up in the Atharva-veda-upanishads. As stated in the Grihyasutra of Asvalayana (i. 13, 1) certain rites connected with conception, procreation of male child, etc., are taught in
a 'upanishad'. Kityayana in his Sarvanukramianika calls a charm in the Rigveda (i, 191) as a 'upanishad'. The chapter XIV of the Kautilya Arthasastra (manual of politics) is called the 'Upanishadic chapter' where are taught magic rites for the purpose of arson, assasination, blinding, etc. Similarly in a upanishadic chapter (VII) of the Kamasastra (manuals of erotics) Vatsyayana discloses secret prescriptions relating to sexual intercaurse and to cosmetics. The Pancharatna-sistra is called a great 'upanishad by Ramanuja (on Brahmasutra, II, 2. 43). The oldest and more authentic Upanishads, however, are in part included in the Aranyakas only, and in part appended to them. It is, therefore, difficult to draw the line between the aranyakas and the Upanishads proper both being supplements to the Brahmanas. These are the Vedanta proper, both in the sense of 'the end' or concluding portion of the Veda and of the 'final aim' of the Veda Thus 'vedanta' originally implied only the Upanishads, the word, being later used to mean a particular system of philosophy based on the Upanishads. Thus the Aitareya Aranyaka of the Aitereya Brahmana of the Rigveda includes the Aitereya Upanisha and the Kaushistaki Brahmana of the same Veda contains the Kaushitaki Upnishad. Similarly the Taittiriya and Mahanarayana Upnishads, Svetisvatara and Maitrayaniya also belong to the same Veda The Satapatha Brahmana of the White Yajurveda contains an aranyaka in Book XIV which includes the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Isa Upanishad also belongs to the same Vedi. The Kena Upanishad and the Jaiminiya Brahmana and the Chhandogya Upanishad of the Tandya Mahabrahmana belong to the Samaveta. The Mundaka, the Mandukya, and the Prasna Upanishals belong to the Atharvaveda. The six earliest Upanishads known as the Aitareya, Brihadaranyaka, Chhandogya, Taittiriya Kaushitaki, composed in clumsy prose and Kena otherwise called Tavalkara partly in prose and partly in verse contain pure Velanta doctrine in original form are dated in the same period in which the corresponding Aranyakas and Brahmanas are placed before the Gautama Buddha. About the same period but later in date are also dated the Katha, Svetasvatara and
Mahanirayana Upanishads of the Taittiriya Aranyaka of the Black Yajurveda, Isa Upanishad of the White Yajurveda, and the Munduka and Prasna Upanishads of the Atharvaveda The first five of these six are composed mostly in verse and the last partly in prose. These also contain the Vedanta doctrine which is, however, mixed with the doctrines of the Sankhya and the Yoga philosophies Sankaracharya mentioned in his commentary on the Brahmasutra twelve upanishads, as sacred, and excluded the mention of the rest. The Maitrayaniya Upanishad of the Black Yajurveda which is written in classical Sanskrit prose, and the Mandukya Upanishad of the Atharva-veda composed partly in prose and partly in verse are placed in the post Buddha period. These fourteen are considered as the Vedic Upanishads and the sources of the earliest Indian philosophy. Thers are some 200 non-Vedic Upanishads of uncertain later dates. They are more related to the Purinas and the Tantras. They deal more with religious dogmas rather than the philosophical doctrines of the earlier Upanishads. In consideration of their contents Professor Winternitz has classified the non-Vedic Upanishads into six groups, viz., those which present the Vedinta doctrines, those which teach the Yoga philosophy, those which extole the life of renumciation (sannyasa), those which glorify Vishnu, those which praise Siva as the highest divinity, and those which glorify the mother goldess Sakti of the Tantric worshippers. These are written partly in prose and partly in verse. For instance the Javala Upanisha 1 deals with cosmogony, physiology, psychology and metaphysics. The Garbha Upanishad, which reads like a treatise on embryology, refers to the meditation on embryo in order to prevent rebirth in new womb. Similar subjects are treated in the Upanishads like the Atharvasiras, and the Vajrasuchika which defines a Brahman as one knowing the god Brahman. Another collection of 50 Upanishad was translated in Persian in 1656 under the title of Oupnek'hat. The philosophy of the Upanishads, in other word the fundamental doctrine which pervades all the genuine Upanishads and which has made them so popular, has been summed up in the sentence that 'the universe is the Brahman, but the Brahman is the
Atman.' Philosophically the same idea is expressed by another sentence that 'the world is God, and God is my soul.' The entire thought resolves around the two conceptions of Brahmam and Atman. Brahman is interpreted as the craving and fullness of Atman, hence it is the will of man In the Vedas it is used in the sense of prayer, formula, sacred knowledge. Thus it means the Divine principle which is the cause of existence and resembles the Jewish Divinity. It is the creator God. Atman of unknown etymology, may have been derived from a root meaning to breathe. Hence it means breath, self, and soul. It denotes "one's own person, one's own body in contrast to the outside world, sometimes the trunk in contrast to the limbs, but most frequently the soul, the true self, in contrast to the body." These two conceptions of Brahman and Atman have been united in the philosophy of Upanishads. Thus Sanilya declares that Brahman and Atman are one, and 'truly, this All is Brahman.' Professor Decssen in his 'Philosophy of the Upanishais' elucidates the conceptions by stating that "The Brahman, the power which presents itself to us materialised in all existing things, which creates, sustains, preserves and receives back into itself again all worlds, this eternal infinite divine power is identical with the Atm .n, with that which, after stripping off everything external, we discover in ourselves as our real most essential being, our individual self, the soul". This Upanishad dictum holding the doctrine of the unity of the world with the Brahman and of the Brahman with the Atman was later expressed in the well known words 'tat tvam asi', that art thou, that is, the universe and the Brahman, that art thou thyself. In other words the world exists only in so far as thou thyself art conscious of it. This confessed faith of millions of Indians still continues amongst us. '