Introduction (Temples of ancient India)

CHAPTER V BASIC ARTS The state and the church remained separated in ancient India, the latter not assuming any political power. The state did not interfere with the indivi ual freedom of religious thought. Therefore there grew up all sorts and forms of religions of worship. The intensely spiritual nature of the Hindus is, however, reflected more expressly in both private and public temples and the institutions connected therewith, iz., schools and colleges, libraries, separate debating halls, theatres for enacting dramas and performing dancing and other music, alms-houses for free distribution of food and residence, medicine and treatment of ailments to the needy persons and devotees. The temple was in fact the centre of all public and healthy activities Temples were a sort of assembly and unio. Around the temple developed both the village and city lives. The state delegated its power of administration to the temple authorities of important educational institutions and organisation of charities, not only to the poor but also to the religious mendicants who supplied moral education to the people and never worked otherwise to earn their livelihood. The king or the head of the state was thus relieved of a great responsibility of educating, feeding and clothing, and even housing the deserving people. But he had to provide funds liberally for the building up and maintenance of all these important institutions. Non-recurring grant of huge sum appears to have been made for the erection and development of such institutions and permanent land grants were made for their repairs, upkeep and maintainence. And above all fully autonomous power was given to the managing per ons or bodies of these institutions. It looks as if quite independent states were allowed to grow within the sovereign state. The germ of autonomous government within the sovereignty of the state is indicated by the temple government. The subordinate tates which devloped during Budddist and the epic period starting from 1000 B. C. were based upon the institution of temple administration. Similarly from the temple came out the independent the

alms-houses ad Dharmashalas which still continue to provide free lodgings with o without boarding for pilgrims an^ secular travellers. Thus the hospitals and charitable dispensaries both for man and beast came into being. Similarly independent universities came into being at Taxila in North west, Valabhi in Kathiawar, Ujjain in Central India, Nalanda and Vikramasilal in Bihar, Odantapura in Bengal and Amaravati in the south. Shelter and watering places on public road were made as stated in the inscriptions of king Asoka and others. Colleges and schools for general and technical studies of medicine. surgery, engineering, agriculture etc., were also established. Taxila specialized in medicine and surgery. Apart from religious and philosophical subjects secular and practical subjects were taught at Nalanda There was a post graduate school of art and a departn.ent for architecture, a medical school, an agricultural departmeni with dairy farming and cattle breeding. The ife of the university was one of animated debates and discussions, and attracted stu ients from China, Japan, Tibet, Korea, Mongolia and Bokhara. The spread of Indian culture abroad was largely the work of scholars fr m Nalanda as admitted by Nehru in his Discovery of India. There were separate musical halls and theatres also at these places, and several other centres. also The From the time of Gautuma Buddha the great institution of monastery for monks and nuns cam into being with the most elaborate rules of administration and the most methodical bodies of management Buddhist monks in Burma known as Fungis and living on publi charity, still continue to supply free primary education, resulting in the cet per cent literacy of the Burnians of to-day. Countries like India on the other hand have been shirking the responsibility for providing free minimum education to all the population as a birth right on the ground of the want of funds The Vihara or Monastery, both with the Buddhists and Jains, was a hall where the monks met; afterwards these halls came to be used as ten ples and became the centres of monastic establishments. Like the Chaityas they resemble very closely the corresponing institutions among Christians. In the earlier ages they accompanied by, but 1 ter detached from, the Chaityas or churches. In later times they were furnished with were

chapeis in which the service could be performed independently of the Chaitya halls. The Chaitya halls at Barabar 16 miles north of Gaya bear Asoka's inscriptions of about 250 B. C. Chaitya halls at Lomas Rishi preserves the general feature. More interesting examples exist in western and central India at Bhaja, Bidisa, Nasik, Karle¹, Ajanta (caves no. 10, 19 and 26), Ellora (Viswakarma cave), Juanar (Manmoda) cave and at Kanheri. The well known examples of monastery comprising a group of apartments for monks and thus known as Sanghara ma exist at Ajanta (caves no. 2, 11, 16, 17), Bagh (cave no. 3), Salsatte, Bombay (Darbar cave), Nasik (Nahapana Vihara); at the south end of Ellora group; at Aurangabad, Khuda and other places; and at Jamalgarhi, Takht-i-Bahai and Sha-Dheri. The small but rich community of the Jains are still famous for their charity homes, free schools for boys and girls and the generous endowments for their temples and monks. The Jains, like the Buddhists, built Bhikshu-grihas or the cave-dwellings, that is, monasteries for their recluses from about 2 nd century B. C. The best examples still exist at Udayagiri (Tiger cave), at Ellora (Indra Sabha), Lakkundi, Pulitana (Satrunjaya hill); Mount Abu (temple of Vimala and of Tejahpala); at Girnar (temple of Neminatha); ruins at Parswanath Hill; at Ranpur in Jodhpur: at Khajuraho in Bundelkhand, the Ghantai and Adinath temple; and at Chitor (the tower of Victory of Rana Khumbha). In south India there are beautiful examples at sravana Belgola (Bastis), at Mudabidri (temple and tombs of priests), at Guruvayankeri (Pavilion). The modern Jain edifices are illustrated by the temple at Sonagarh 'n Bundelkhand², and Hathisingh temple at Ahmedabad. There are traces of several Jain temples being converted into Muhammedan mosques of which the examples are the Adhai-din-ka Jhopra at Ajmer, Qutab near Delhi, at Kanauj, Dhar, and many other places. The great public bath at Mohenjodaro of about 3,000 B. C. to which a reference has been already made, is a tank cr bath of secular and religious character. How that was built we do not know. But similar tanks 2 1 See plate Appended at the end. See plate from Fergussion Woodcut 297, Vol. II, p. 63, 22

separated from the temple precinct were built from time immemorial till nineteenth century by the state and private personages and it has solved a great problem of water suppty in cities and countryside alike. The great lake at Junagarh originally built by the emperor Chandragupta Maurya and subsequently repaired by kings Asoka, Rudradiman, and Skandagupta served also for irrigation, agricultural and other purposes, and retained the fertility of the Gujerat desert. King Asoka had wel's dug and trees planted on the road side also. Several names of the kings of the Pala dynasty of the tenth century and the Sena dynasty of the twelfth century are associated with hundred of such tanks in Bihar and Bengal. Hardly there is any long road in U. P. and other provinces which is not adorned with such tanks at easy distance which are still supplying water to travelling public and local beasts. The road of some hundred miles between Tippera Hill State and Chittagong has been provided with tanks of even half a mile in length and at some four to eight mile distance at enormous cost. They still supply unlimited quantity of naturally filtered and pure water which no municipalities of present day have been able to do anywhere in india. References to regularly built altars during the period of the Vedas have been already quoted. But the details are lacking regarding the state share in their construction and the management thereof. Similar refe ences to temples of scientific construction and details have been quoted from the epics also. The Ramayana (I. 5, 10-15) refers to the temple together with their associated as embly halls, public gar lens, and charitable a ms houses. The Mahabharata refers to several assembly halls and one royal council including lodgings for royal guests. The Buddhist texts refer frequently as stated abo e to rock-cut temples of which some three thousand still exist including those at Ajanta, Ellora, Nasik, Badami, Bagh, Bedsa, Bengal, Bihar, Bhaja, Dhamnan, Gunt palle. Junagarh, Junnar, Kalugumalai, Karhari, Karhad, Karle, Kholvi, Kondave, Kondivte, Orissa, Pitakhora, Sana and Talaja. Monasteries are associated with most of the rock-cut temples but there are independent morastries also such as in Burma, Tibet, Gandhara and Pekin. Stupas and Chaitya halls at Sarnath, Bharhut and specially at Sanchi which show how easily they could be built by public contribution, as is indicated by

inscribed stone slabs. The regular Bhuddhist temples at Barobudar and other places show the extent of money and labour spent on its construction apparently by state contribution. The finest example of a purely Hindu temple is supplied by the Lingaraja (Siva shrine) at Bhuvaneswara which is traditionally ascribed to a king Lalitendra Kesari of 7 th century A. D. The original temple like almost all those in Orissa consisted only of a Vimana or tower (Baradewal) and a porch or Jagamohan; the Nata-mandapa or music hall and the Bhoga-mandapa or dining hall were added about the 12 th century, while the kings of the Somavamsa of Saiva faith built the Siva temples at Bhuvaneswara, the kings of the Gangavamsa of Vaishnava faith who superseded about 1078 A. D. built the stupendous edifice at Puri known as the temple of Jagannath. It is ascribed to king Anantavarma Chola Gangadeva (1100 A. D). It is enclosed by a double wall with four openings and it is also composed of the Vimana tower of 142 ft. in height, the Jagamohan or porch of 155 ft east and west, Nata-mandira or music hall and the Bhogananda pa or dining hall jointly making the whole length of the temple about 300 ft. and numberless smaller shrines, halls for debate, for teaching, for congregation, open sheds for distribution of cooked food, and cells for residence. The sun temple at Konarak, 19 miles north east of Puri, described in great detail by Abul Fazl, is ascribed to Raja Narasingha deva I (1238-1264 A. D.). It comprises the same four parts of the Orissa temple, viz., tower, porch, music and dining halls.1 1 See Appended Plate. There are several other temples in Orissa. Fergusson has put in 650-1000 A.D. five temples, viz., Parasu. Rameswara, Sisireswara, Kapalini, Uttareswara and Someswara at Mukhalin. gam. Between 900-1000 A.D are placed eleven temples, viz, Sari Deula, Mukteswara, Lingaraja at Bhuvaneswara, Kedareswara, Siddheswara, Bhagavati, Someswara, Brahmeswara, Mukhalingeswara, Viraja and Varahanatha at Jajpur, and Markandeswara at Puri. In the 11 th century are dated five temples, viz., Nakeswara, Bhaskareswara, Rajarani, Chitrakarni, and Kapileswara. In the 12 th century are placed five temples, viz, Ramewara, Yameswara, Maitreswara, Jagannatha temple at Puri, and Megheswara. And in the 13 th century are placed another five temples, viz., Vasudeva temple, Konarak Sun temple, Nataman. dapa of Lingaraja at Bhuvaneswara, Vishnu temple at Madap in Konarak district and Gopinatha temple at Remura. Most of these were built by the Pala rulers and some might have been erected by private persons.

At Owing to the vandalism of the Muslim invaders the early temples of northern India have disappeared. Benares, the most sacred place of the Hindus, the present temple of Viswanatha was built in the 18 th century to replice the original Kirti Visweswara which was thrown down and desecrated by Aurangzeb in 1659 in order to erect on the most acred spot of the Hindus his mosque whose tall minarets till lately reared their h ads in insult over all the Hindu and Buddhist buildings at Benares and Sarnath. Here all the alms houses, Dharma, alas, Music halls, etc., are completely detached from the temples At Mathura, Brindavan, Govardhan, etc., a few Hindu temples till exist. The Krishna cult developed in Braja Bhumi especially at Brindavan in Mathura district. But its temples built both by the kings as well as by Goswami community of Bengal met with the same fate as the temples in Orissa and at Benares. The famous Govindadeva temple at Brindavan was built in 1590 A D. by the celebrated Man Singh of Anibar and Jaipur (1522-1615). Its Sikhara was thrown down by Aurangzeb who erected on the roof an Ibadat-gah or a place for Muslim prayer. The antarala or the inner mandapa of te

' BASIC ARTS 179 Like the temples in Orissa and in Northern India, Rajputana and Gujerat temples in Central India also supply instances of the public life being centred round temples. The desecrated temple at Baroli situated not far from the falls of the Chambal has a detached porch known as marriage pavilion which was erected for the marriage of a Huna prince to a Rajput bride between the 9 th nd 10 th century A. D. In Gwalior there were some interesting examples. The governor of the fort built in 875 A. D the Chaturbhuja Vishnu temple. In the fort there is the Sas Bahu really the Padmanabha temple built by the ruler himself in 1093. In the same place an older temple was used as a mosque as ha pened at Benares. The example of a temple having been built by a guild is supplied by the Teli-kamandir which was built by the oilmen. About 150 miles south east from Gwalior is the old capital of the Chandella kings, known as Khajuralro which, like Bhuvaneswara in Orissa are still adorned with some thirty important temples of which twenty-eight excluding the two temples of Chaushath Jogini and Ganthai, were erected by the Chandella princes between 950 and 1050. They are dedicated in almost equal number to the Saiva, Vaishnava, and Jaina ceities. In each group there is one or more larger temples with smaller ones scattered about. The Saiva group is dedicated to Khadarya Mahadeva and the Vaishnava group to the Chaturbhuja and Ramachandra. The combination shows clearly the toleration or community of feeling. The erection in the 12 th century of the large Gondeswara ten.ple at Junnar about 18 miles from Nasik is ascribed to a petty king of the Yadava dynasty. Like, Khajuraho Nagda or Nagahrada contains groups of Siva, Vishnu and Jain temples. The finest here are the two Vaishnava temples known as Sas-Bahu built in the 12 th century. The smaller Mahadeva temple built about the same time contains the public meeting halls in front of the Jain temple. One dedicated to Parswanatha was built in 1429 and another called Aabudhaji's temple was erected in 1437 in the reign of king Kumbhakarna. At Chitorgarh the famous Mira Bai and her husband Rana Kumbha of Chitor (1418-1-468) built two Vishnu temples, the king's temple being the smaller one and showing thereby that there was even a competition between husbands and wives in their contributions towards temples. Again Rana Kumbha although an

orthodox Hirdu is well known as a patron of the Jains and must have contributed largely in the erection of the Jain temples at Ranpur and the Kirti Stambha or victory pillar at Chitor. As in Bengal, there is hardly any Hindu temple left in Gujerat aud Malwa to illustrate the similar construction, composition and management. In the Punjab the golden temple at Amritsar has, however, survived the Muslim vandalism. But the golden temple in the sacred tank is no longer an idol shrine but a monotheistic place of prayer. Its construction was started by the fourth Sikh Guru Ramdas and was completed by his successor Arjun. But Ahmed Sha Abdali blew this Hara-mandira (temple of Siva) in 1761. It was rebuilt in 1766. In 1502 Ranjit Singh spent large sums. on it in ornamenting its walls with marbles from Jahangir's tomb and roofing it with copper gilt. The Sikhs never required and built many temples. Their reading of the Granth Saheb and prayer was performed. individually till recently and therefore no place for congregation was required. Temples in Kashmir surmounted by four roofs met with the same fate. Only the remnants of the wonderful structures remain. The temple of Martanda situated 5 miles out of the old capital Islamabid compares well in beauty and magnificence to 'Palmyra or Thebes or cther wonderful groups of ruins of the old world' The court-yard 220 ft. by 142 ft. which is a more remarkable object than the temple itself was no doubt the place of meeting and union of all the people. As stated in the Rijatarangini of Kalhana this wonderful temple of Martanda with its massive walls of stone within a lofty enclosure was built by King Lalitaditya Muktapida (725-760) Sikandar Shah Bhutsikan (1393-1416) destroyed the image and and wrecked the temple itself. The court, however, had been usei as a fortification in Jayasimha's reign (1128-1149). The next group of temple ruins in Kashmir are found at Avantipur or Vantipor on the right bank of Jhelum half way between Srinagar and Islamabad. All these were erected during the reign of Avantivarman of the Utpala dynasty (855-933). At Sankarapura or modern Patan between Srinagar and Beramula Sankaravarman (883-92), son and successor of Avantivarman, and his queen Srigandha erected two Siva temples which

still exist, though corridors have disappeared. The ten ple at Buniar is nearly perfect and gives a very fair idea of the Kashmir temples'. Remains of temples at Panduthun, Payer and Malot in he salt Range are pleasing though not magnificent. The two temples in the Kangra valley illustrate efforts of private individuals and merchants in erecting such monuments which were ultimately talen up by the state for repair and maintenance. Two inscriptions", in the larger temple dedicated to Vaidyanatha Siva ard situated in Kiragrama about 25 miles east of Kangra, record that it was built by two brothers, Manyuka and Ahuka, wealthy merchants under Lakshmana Chandra, brother-in-law of Jayachan.ra, king of Jalandhara or Trigarta in 1204 But in 1786 it underwent a thorough repair by Raja Samsarachandra II. It consists of a hall, 20 ft. square inside, with four round pillars of the Hindu-Corinthian order supporting the roof and shrine for the phallus of Siva, 8 ft square, separated from the hall by a small antechamber. The second temple of Siddhantha at the east end of the town dedicated probably to the Sun also consists of a fourpillare hall and a shrine 33 ft. by 20 ft. and with a Sikhara or spire about 35 ft. in height. Unlike in Kashmir where a Buddhist period developed by the th century, in Nepal we find the Saiva, Vaishnava and Buddhist religions existing side by side at the present day. The towns of Kathmandu Patan, and Bhatgaon are crowded with sacred edifices of the three sects and it is rightly stated that 'in Nepal there are more temples than houses and more icols than men though the structures are all modern and the people are too poor to indulge in such magnificence as is found on the plains. King Asoka, who is stated to have visited the valley, built five Chaityas, one in the centre of Patan and the others at the four cardinal points round it, which still exist. They are not stupas because they do not contain relics of the Buddha but they are of the same shape being hemispherical mound of earth covered by brick and surrounded by a plinth of brick which serves as a circular path. Four chapels are placed 1 See Plate from Fergusson Wood Cut 151, vol. II p. 265. 2 Translated in Epigraphia Indica, vol. 1, pp. 97.118; vol. ii, p. 482; vol. v. Appendix, p. 78; Indian Antiquary, vol. xx. p. 154.

r round the dome, ach containing the image of Buddha at four cardinal points. The two most important Buddhist monuments in Nepal are, however, Svayambhunatha and Bodhnatha, the former at Kathmandu was built by Raja Pratapamalla in the 17 th century and the latter at Bodhanatha is ascribed to King Mahadeva of the 6 th century, as also to a Tibetan Lama named Khasa of later date. The most characteristic Napalese temples of several storeys, resembling those of Burma and China, are usually dedicated to Siva or Vishnu But the one at Patan is dedicated to Mahabuddha and Sikyamuni occupies the basal floor, mitabha the second storey, a Chaitya, the third, a relic shrine (dharma-dhatu-mandala), the fourth, a Vajra-dhitu-mandala, and the fifth or apex which externally consists of a jewel-headed Chaitya. It was built in the 16 th century by Abhaya-raja, a Buddhist Newar, during the reign of Amara Malla after the model of Bodh Gaya which he had visited with his family. One of the most elegant Hindu temples of the sloping roof class is the Bhawani temple at Bhatgaon which was built in five storeys on a pyramid of five platforms in 1703 by Bhupatindra-malla to enshri e a secret Tantrik goddess not allowed to be seen to this day². The other of the same class but of two storeys is the Mahideva temple at Patan on the left of which stands the beautiful temple of Krishna with its spire and clustering pavilions and tall Sikhara or -pire of the Bengal type, About 3 miles east from Kathmandu on the bank of the Bagmati stream was built in the 17 th century by soe king the famous Pasupati Siva tmple which is as which is as sacred as the Visvanstha temple at Benares. But it is more notable for the little chapels close by it which are memorials of the Satis or wilows burnt along with the bodies of their dead husbands. In Nepal the king who is treated as an incarnation of God and is w rshipped, does not take part in the administration, the prime minister being the sole ruler. In Tibet also Buddhism exists in inexplicable com ination with Saivism n demon worship. But nl See plate from Fergusson's Woodcut 155, p. 278, Vol. 1). 1 2 See plate 1, p. 281. from photograph 157, Fergusson vol

Devi Bhavani Temple, Bhatgaon, Nepal Interior of cave temple at Karle Plate III

Corridor, Angkor Vat (temple), Cambodia Plate IV Shwe Dagon Pagoda, square temple, at Rangoon

the Tibetan monasteries consisting of long streets of cells surrounding small courtyards, three or four on each side illustrate illustrate more than anywhere else the residential rather than spiritual nature of sch institutions. It is statel (A. S. B. 1891, p. 278) that the Debung Lamasery contains 9000, Sera 7000, and Gandan 4000 Lamas vowel to celebacy and living together on the contribution made by the visiting public and the state. The most magnificent monastery is that of Potala built between 1642 and 1650 by the first Dalai Lama who is believed by the Tibetans to be the living incarnation of the Bohisattva valokiteswara and hence the principal object of worship in Lhasa. The centre of the whole monastery is occupied by a great block dominating the others, which contains the temples, audience halls and the Chaityas of the Dalai Lamas. Besides the reception and state rooms ani sanctuaries it is said to contain 10,000 chambers for its myriad occupants. round this central place are grouped a number of smaller ones, where the inferior members of this great ecclesiastical order reside. On the roof of this Red Palace are the gilded p vilions of Chinese style that render it so conspicuous in the landscape. Thus it is the centre of all political and social activities and in it has fully cul ninated the ideal of temple and the intimate connexion of connexion of the state therewith, . The Samya ni mastery about 35 miles south-east from I' asa near the Sang po river is the earliest i Tibet founded about the middle of the sth century by he famous teacher Padma Sambhava who went from Bihar along with other Buddhist teachers and modeled after the great temple : onastery of Odantap ri near Nalanda and of Vikramasila both destroyed by Muhammad Bakhtiar Khilji about 1194 This Samyas monastery with its large temple and four separate colleges enclosed by a circular wall about a mile and a half in circuit and containing a notable library and the state treasury 'became the metropolis of the Red-cap order. The monastery of Saky founded in .071 is said to contain the largest single building in Tibet; it is seven storeys high and has a spacious assembly hall and a library * 1 See Photograph from Fergusson, vol. i, plate vi between pp. 292.293. 23

which is famous for its collection of Sanskrit and Tibetan manuscripts. Its grand Lama was acknowledged by Khubilai Khan in 1270 as head of the church and made tributary prince of Tibet The intimate association of non-political character of the state with the church is illustrated by the Sakya monastery. The Gandan monastery founded in 1409 by the Geludgpa Lama Tsong-Khapa, of which the chief object of reverence is the lofty mausoleum of the founder built of marble and ornamented with malachite and a gilded roof. It encloses a stupa of gold in which is deposited the embalmed remains of the sage One of his disciples founded the Sera monastery two miles north of Lhasa in 1417 in which are about 5500 monks. The Depung monastery 3 miles west of I hasa 'contains fully 7000 inmates". It was founded in 1414 and modelled after the Indian monastery of Dhanyakataka or Amaravati. Within its enclosure there is a large temple surrounded by four chapels and a palace of Lhasa Lama. The Gyan-tse monastery forms a little fortified town Its buildings rise in tiers. It is locally known as Gandhola, a name of the great tem ple at Bodh-Gaya. It is a beautiful structure: 100 ft high and 600 ft. in circumference and is built in five stepped terraces with recessed angles on the plan of the Vimanas (tower) of the Indian temple. Above these is a circular drum of one storey and over it a smaller square one surmounted by a spire of thirteen great rings of gilt copper covered by chhatra canopy of same material. In the different storeys are numerous shrines dedicated to different Buddhas which are reached by inside stairs, and the terrace roofs of the successive storeys form a series of chaityangana or Pradakshinapatha," under of the group Tempies in south India are classified two groups, Chalukyan and Dravidian. Most earlier and finer examples of examples of the Chalukya covering Mysore and all the Kanarese country perished during the early Muslim invasion and the later rule of the various Muslim dynasties of the Deccan. Extant examples include the great temple at Ittayi, the temple of Someswara at Gadag, the Chandadampur temple of Mukteswara, the Malikarjuna temple at Kuruvatti on 1 See plate vii, Fergusson Vol. 1, between pp. 294.225, 2 See plate from Fergusson Woodcut 250, vol. 1, p. 430.

the right bank of the Tungabhadra, 3 miles from Chandadampur; the Galageswara temple at Galaganatha 9 miles north from Chandadampur; the Buchhanapali temple near Hyderabad, the Kesava temple atsSomanathpur, the Rajarajeswara temple at Belur, the Kedareswara temple at Balagami and the Kedareswara temple at Halebid The metropolitan temple of Anamkond or Hanamkonda, 4 miles north-west of Warangal in Hyderabad, was erected by king Pratiparudra of Kakatiya Dynasty according to an inscription on it in 1162. For some 300 years 1000-1300) the Hoysola Ballala kings of Mysore built groups of temples Soma the general of Narasimha Ballala completed the Somanath temple in 1270. The Belur temple was built by Vishnuvardhana in 1117. The same king probably started the Halebid temple in 1135%; it appears to have been continued in 1219 by Vira Ballala and one of his queens but partially destroyed by the Muslim invaders in 1310-1311. The Siva temple at Aihole was built by the Chalukya king Vikramaditya (655-5 0); it contains an inscription of the Chaluky king Vijayaditya (718 A. D.) recording a grant for oil to be burnt in the temple. The Dravidian temples are spread over the area below Mysore, Hyderabad and Orissan border to the extreme southern point of the peninsula. Though cut out wonderfully from rock the Kailasha temple at Elapura, modern Ellora in Aurangabad of the Hyderabad state, is an example of a perfect Dravidian temple. The construction of this wonderful Siva temple on the hill Elapura is ascribed to the king Krisha I (757-783) of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Malkhed. Fresh alditions appear to have been made from time to time in the rock walls of the surrounding court. Unlike the Buddhist caves, the Kailasha temple is not a mere interior chamber cut in rock, but is a model of a complete temple cut away from the rock externally as well as internally with amazing precision. Its . monolithic character is the principal scurce of awe and wonder. Its unalterable character and appearance of eternal durability are also remarkable. remarkable. In the centre of the rectangular court 100 ft. by 280 ft stan is the

temple consisting of Vimana (tower) 96 ft. in height preceded by a large square porch supported by 16 columns; before this is the detached porch for the Bull Nandi reached by a bridge; and in front of all stands the gateway (gopura). On two sides of the porch are two fire pillars dhvaja stambha and two life-size elephants. Rund the court there is a peristylar cloister with cell and a ove are some halls which give to the whole a complexity and at the same time a completeness, which never fail to strike the beholder with astonishment and awe. The Mammalla uram Rathas or seven Pagodas on the Madras coast all cut in gran te an in single block showing no sign of wearing or decay are placed in the seventh century. They are all left unfinished. The first on the north is Draupadi Ratha, next is Arj na's Ratha, the third is Bhima's Ratha, the fourth on the extreme south is Dharmaraja's Ratha which is the finest and most interesting of the group.' The small Ratha to the west of others, forming the fifth group are called Sahadeva an Nakula's. The sixth is Ganesa Ratha situated at a distance of three quarters of a mile north of the others. In this there is an inscription dedicating the shrine to Siva by king Atya takama Ranajaya who is identified with Rajasimha Pallava of the 7 th century and who executed the Dharmaraja and probably the other excavated shrines of Mammallapuram within a short period about A D. 670 to 700. Of the remaining temples of the Dravi·la country the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal was built by Loka mahadev, the queen of the Chalukya king Vikramaditya 11 (738-747). The Sangameswara tem, le at the same place to the north-west was erected in the reign of Vijayaditya (647-733) At Aihole Rav.kirti, a Jain, built in 634-635 Meguti temple during the reign of Fulikesin II. The Malegitti Siv.laya out-ide the town of Badami was also built in the 7 th century. At Conjivaram or Kanchipuram the Kailasanatha temple is the most interesting one. It was built by the Pallava king Rajasimha or Narasimha Vishnu, son of Ugradanda Lokaditya between 655-680 as shown by the inscription on it. The Vaikun- 1 See plate from Fergusson's Woodcut 190, vol. 1, p. 334, 2. See plate ibid Wood cut 193, p. 337.

tha Perumal is a Vaishnava temple at the same place. The Ekaramanatha is a Saiva temple possessing the largest Gopuram of ten storeys of 183 ft. in height built by KrishnadevaRaja of Vijayanagar (1509-1530). In little Conjivaram is the Varadaraja Swami Vishnu temple which is the principal seat of the Visishtadvaita school of Ramanuja. The Siva temple or the seven Pagodas contain two shrines, one dedicated to Vishnu and another to Siva It was built about the 9 th century A. D. The oldest and best preserved of the Dravidian temples is the Tanjore temple of Brihadiswara Siva-linga, otherwise called Rajarajeswara. It was bu lt by Rajarajadeva Ch la I, son of Parantaka II between 985 and 1012 A. D. Long inscriptions in old Tamil covering the base of the central shrine further record the gifts of gold images, vessels and ornaments mare to the temple by king R jar ja and his eldes; sister Kundavaiyar. It consists of two courts, one a square of 250 ft, originally devoted to the minor shrines and residences but converted into an arsenal by the French in 17771. The main shrine 50 ft. by 250 ft. is two storeys in height above which the pyramid rises in thirteen storeys to the summit of 190 ft. culminating in a dome of single stone. The tower, Virana, which is the best in the south, dominates over the Gopurams and smaller shrines of the Vaishnava faith added in the 16 th century. The most remarkable object in this temple is the image of Bull Nandi carved in a single piece of granite stone measuring 16 ft. from muzzle to rump by above 7 ft. across, 12 ft. 2 in. to top of head, 10 ft. 4 in, to top of hump and i ft. 5 in. to top of back 2. Of the several other smaller shrines in the en closure the Subrahmanya or Kartikeya temple is, as stat ed by Furgusson, the most exquisit piece of decorative architecture in south of luaia." On the other hand the Valmikeswara (Siva and consort) temple at Tiruvalur in Tanjore district is stated to be the worst artistically with its irregularly spaced Gopuramas nun bering I in 1758 Lolli besieged it in vain, in 1771 the English took it and in 1801.1802 Raja Sarfoji had it purified and reconsecrated. 2 The image of Bull without being connected with a Siva temple at Bangalore is more bulky but the carving is more wonderful at Tanjore. 3 Plate from Fergusson Woodcut 214, vol 1, p. 365.

five and its great hall with 807 columns half of which are mere posts not fitted to carry a roof of any sort. The oldest existing portion is the shrine of Achaleswara which contains defaced inscriptions of Rajaraja I and Rajen ira Chola (A.D. 985-1018. Sri Ranganatha Vaishnava temple at Srirangam 2 1/2 miles north of Trichinapoly proper is the largest temple in the south. It consists of four courts or prakaras and fourteen or fifteen Gopurams or gate towers. The fourth court encloses the shrines and the hall of 1000 columns which actually contains 953 pillars being 18 in front by 63 in depth. The outer enclosures are generally occupied by the Brahmans and persons connected with the temple. The outermost enclosure is practically a bazaar (market) filled with shops when pilgrims are lodged and fed. It measures 2521 ft by 2865 ft. The shrines and inner prakaras must have been built before the 12 th century by some king of the Nayyak dynasty, for, Jatavarman Sundara Pandya in 1254 made large gifts and additions to the temple and in 1871 Kampana Ulaiyar of Vijayanagar repaired it. Its further progress was stopped in the 18 th century by the French who occupied and fortified it. Within a mile to the east there is the Jambukeswara Siva temple which surpasses in beauty as an architectural object though not so large. Its hall of 1000 pillars contains 720 columns. It is also furnished with enclosures, Gopurams and Mandapams, and a tank fed by a perpetual spring. An inscription on the south wall of the second Prakaram is dated in the tenth year of the reign of Jatavarman Sundara Pandya who began to reign in 1251; the outer enclosures were probably added as late as 1600 A.D. The Sive temple at Chidambaram (a name of Siva) in South Arkot district is the most venerated if not the oldest. It is dedicated to the Akasa lingam of the Pancha lingams.' But the chief idol of the temple is Natesa or dancing Siva. There is the temple of Parvati also which is remarkable for its singular elegance of its porch. The Chitasabha or main shrine 1. The Prithvi lingam made of earth at Conjivaram; the Apa. ling am extruding water at Jambukeswaram, the Tejah.lingam sparkl ing with light at Tiruvannamalai in South Arkot the Vayu.lingam, of which the lamp vibrate with wind at Kalahasti in north Arkot; and the Akasa lingam having no material representation at Chidhambaram.

is also furnished with its Kanakasabha or golden hall, Nritya-sabhi or dancing hall, Deva-sabha or office hall, a porch of 56 pillars, hall of 1000 pillars, Mandapams, Gopurams and enclosures. This exemplifies the growth of a big temple by the efforts of several generations. According to an inscription Viranarayana or Parantaka' early in the 10 th century covered the hall with gold cr erected the Kanakasablia. An inscription of Raja dhiraja I (1018-1052) shows that the two inner enclosures were in existence in the 10 th century. The temple of Parvati on the north of the tank was added in the 14 th or 15 th century to which period the great Gopurams and second enclosure also belong. The north Gopuram 140 ft. high is ascribed to Krishnadeva about 1520 A. D. The hall of 1000 columns was erected between 1595 and 1685 where the outer enclosure was commenced but left unfinished. There is a detached hall also across the Siva-ganga tank and opposite the main temple. It is called the Rajasabha, king's council hall of 1000 columns of monolithic grantite arranged 24 in front by 41 in depth making 984. It measures 333 ft. by 197 ft. The Siva temple at Rameswa am in the island of Pambam exhibits all the beauties and the charactistic defects of the the Dravidian style. It has also records showing clearly how the tempe property was administered and how the actual b ilders were deprived of all control. Like other temples it also consists of the shrines, enclosures, Gopurams, Mandapams, halls and corridors. Externally it is enclosed by a wall of 20 ft. in height possessing four Gopurams. But the loy of this temple res ds in its corrido s', which extend to nearly 400 ft. in length, cover 17 ft. to 21 ft. in breat and rise to 30 ft. in height; each pillar being 12 ft. high standing on a platform of 5 ft. from the floor. The side corridors are almost 700 ft of uninterrupted length.' The central shrines w re built in the 15 th century by Udaiyan a Setupati chief of Ramnad and his family endowed it exclusively. In the 17 th century the Kamnad Rajas erected the surrounding l None of European Cathedrals are more than 500 ft. and even the nave of St. Peter's, Rome, is only 600 ft from the door to the apse. See from Fergusson, Wood cut 225 vol I. p. 383,

walls (prakaras) to which additions were made in the 18 th century including the Amman temple. The Pandaram or the manager of the temple raised a suit against the Zamindar of Ramnad to deprive him of the hereditary right of supervision of the temple. The Privy Council did not accept claims of the Ram nad Setupatis and deprived them of their right to appoint the Dharmakartas or have any share in the management of the temple which their ancestors built and had so richly endowed. endowed. The court would not interfere with the manager's plans whose agents destroyed the old inscriptions and forged others, leased out the temple property to his own relations, estroyed the statues of former patrons and benefactors of the temple to substitute those of his wealthy caste fellows. This is a unique instance but the same absolute right of management was no doubt given over by the state in order to show that the ecclesiastical administration was free of political interference. The temple is th sa wholly autonomcus state in itself enjoying all sovereign power. 1 The great temple at Madura is composed of the sanctuary dedicated to the Sundareswara (linga) and the shrine of the goddess Minaksti or Parvati. The compound measures abou: 730 ft by 850 ft. The temple originally had ten Gopurais, a beautiful tank surrounded by arcades, a hall of 1000 colimus and a small shrine dedicated to the god Sabhapati. It was built in the 18 th centur. by a Sundara Pandya. In 1324 it fell to the Muslims who plundered it mercilessly. In 1372 it was recovered by the Vijayanagar sovereign and Hindu worship was restored. The Min.kshi Nayyaka Mandapam was built by Tirumalai Nayyaka in 1623-16 29 or his elder brother Muttu Virappa. The Kalyana Mandapam was built in 1707 and the Tatta Sud hi in 1770 At Madura there is a famous detached hal, the celebrated Vasarta spring) Mandapam known as Tirumalar's Chaultri Tirumalai Nayyak in 1623 1659 built it for the reception of he presiding deity of the 1 Minaksli means both fish eyed and bright eyed. It was also the name of the wife of king Sundara Pandya There was another queen Minakshi the last sovereign of the Nayyak dynasty who was betrayed by Chanda Sahib, Newab of the Karnatik.

Temple of Svayamabhunath, Khatmandu, Nepal Pitakat Taik, Sacred Library, Burma Plate V

Plate VI Buddha's encounter with the elephant, Nalagiri, Amaravati Sculptures from Isuramuma, Anuradhapuram, Ceylon

place where he could also receive in a suitable manner the homage of the king and his subjects. The hall is 333 ft. long by 105 ft. in width and consists of four ranges or columns all of which are different but elaborately sculptured. It is identical with corridors at Rameswaram¹. According to Wilson 'it was begun in the second year of Tirumalai's reign and completed in twenty-two years (1623 to 1615) at a cost of upwards of a million sterling; the main temple must have cost between three and four times as much as the hall." In front of the hall Tirumalai Nayyak commenced his Raja Gopuram, measuring 174 ft. from north to south and 117 ft. in depth larger in scale than that at Srirangam and far surpasses that celebrated edifice in the beauty of its details. But Tirumalai did not live to complete it. The Gopuram at Kumbakonam, though smaller than that at Madura, is a richly ornamented example of its class. There are small temples at Kombakonam. At Tinnevelly there is a double temple, the great square being divided into equal portions, of which the north one is dedicated to the god Siva and the south half to his consort Parvati. There is a detached pavilion, Kalyana Mandapam, at Velor near Koimbator. Its cornice in particular is of great architectural interest. It is assigned variously to 1350 and 1485. The porch at Perur 3 miles south-west of Koimbator is dated between 1350 and 1750. Lastly Vijayanagar which was finally destroyed by the Muslims in 1565 contains ruins in such profusion and variety as exist no where else in India. The most remarkable temple in the city is the Vithala or Vitthalaswami Vishnu temple. It stands in a rectangular enclosure 538 ft. by 310 ft. with Gopurams on three sides. Outside the east entrance stands a lofty Dipadana or lamp-bearing pillar and there are two beautiful pavilions one of which is the Ratha. Surrounding the whole court there is a corridor with three rows of piers. The shrine is made of granite and carved with boldness and expression of power. There are bold cornice of double flexure, the detached shafts, the Vyalis and the richly carved stylobate, etc. There is on the right the car pavilion the principal storey of which is formed of a single block of granite with movable wheels³. It See Plate from Fergusson's Wood cut 228, vol. 1, p. 889. 2 See plate from Fergusson's Wood cut 236, vol. 1, p. 403. 24

was begun by Krishnadeva in 1513 and continued by Achyuta Raya in 1529-1542 but was never finished. At Tadpatri, about 100 miles south-east of the capital, there are two Vishnu temples The Chintala Tiru Venkata Swami temple was buiit in the time of Timma Nayudu the local governor of Krishnadeva. About 50 miles still further east in the Karnal district there is the Diguva Ahobalam temple which is as-igned to Prataparudra about 1300. The garden pavalion at Vijayanagar is an example of the detached building. The hall 125 ft. by 69 ft. by 56 ft. in Tirumalai Nayyak's palace at Madura would serve as a very effective instance of what Indian architect could do so far as civil edifices are concerned¹. It is situated round a courtyard 160 ft. by 100 ft. surrounded on all sides by arcades of very great beauty. The pillars which support the arches are of stone 40 ft. in height and are joined by foliated brick arcades of great elegance of design, carrying a cornice and onta blature of 60 ft. in height. On the west stands the corners and the octagonal drum rises from these, pierced by a clerestory Above this at the cornice 45 ft. up the octagon is changed to a circl and the dome rises in the centre to 75 ft. from the floor. The Court in the palace at Tanjore and the palace at Chandragiri will further show the finest examples of Indian Civil architecture.³ a lover of fine art Fergusson deplores 'the di appearance of former refinement in the south of India like in other parts also and points to the modern oalaces of the Karnatic Nawabs and of the Rajas of Ramnad and Travancore, wh ch are the bad copies of Italian style that was not properly understood, and which are unsuited for the use to which they are applied' As As in the steps on a No temple proper exists in Ceylon India the ruins in Ceylon have sufferred at hands of Public works-countless pillars and have been broken up to go into culverts road and 'the ruins at Puliyan Kulama were destroyed for ashlar to buil three or four large culverts. on a branch road.' In Anuradhapura there are two Dagobas or Stupas. The larger one Abhayagiri, of 1 See Plate from Fergusson p. 414, 113. sadly Woodcuts 240, 241, vol. i, See Fergusson vol. i. Woodcuts 242, 24, pp. 415, 418.

1000 ft. in circumference, 328 ft. in diameter and 260 ft. in elevation is ascribed to king Vattagamani Abhayar or Walagamabahu who conquered his kingdom in the first century B. C. and to commemorate his victory he is stated to have built also a Vihara or monastery on the site of Jain temple. The second Dagoba known as the Jetavanar ma was begun by king Mahasena in the 4 th century and finished by his successor Kirtti Siri Meghavanna. Of the smaller but more sacred Dagobas the Ruwanveli dagcba was erected by kirg Duttha gamani between B. C. 102 and 78. The same is stated to have built the Mirisavetiya dagoba a so. Still smaller ones are known as the Tuparema ard I ankarama. The king Devanampiya T ssa is stated to have built about 246 B. C. the relic shrine of Thuparama to contain the right collar bone of Buddha' The origin of the Lankarama is not known but it appears to have been restored along with others by Pakramabahu 1 (1153- 1186). In ad ition to these there are a great number of dagobas of various sorts scattered over the area once covered by the old city of Anuradhapura. At Polonnaruwa, the ancient Pul stipura also known as Kalingapura, there is the Jetavanarama temple ascribed to the period of Parakramabahu. It contains an erect statue of Buddha built of brick 58 ft. in height. There are also Kiri dagoba, Rankot dagoba and others, of which the Rankot dogoba is ascribed to Kirti Nissanka Malla, a Kalinga prince of the 12 th century, who is also stated to have built the Sat Mahal Prasida and Galpata which are like the Raths of Mammallapura in south India. Close to the water-da-ge a circular unique building is situated at the Thumarama temple, a large oblong brick structure with walls of 5 ft. thickness was built also by Parakrama bahu.¹ Pagan the old capital of Burma excelled the (eylonese capital both in the extent of its buildings and in their magnifi ence. But the rise and fall of Pagan corresponds with that of Palonnaruwa. It was founded in the middle of the 9 th century and destroyed by the Chinese or the Tartar army of Kublai Khan in 1284. The most remarkable is the Ananda temple built by Kyantsittha (1057-1085). It is a beautiful pagoda of several storeys in height, the two lower ones are 1 See plate iv, Fergusson i. between pp. 246-247,

square with square turrets at each end, the three above have seated lions at each angle¹. A slightly larger but almost identical is the Dhammayangyi built also at Pagan by Narathu in 1160 A. D The temple of Gandaupalin is still more beautiful.2 The Mahabodhi temple was built after the Bodh Gaya temple by Nandanngmya Min in 1198 A. D. The monasteries known as Kyaung attached to the Pagodas are less magnificent. Their ruins only remain at Thaton, Prome, and Pagan The Kyaung at Mandalay illustrates the Burmese monasteries It is raised from 8 to 10 ft. above the ground and surrounded by a balcany on three sides access to which is supplied by flights of steps enclosed between balustrades with a peculiar curved termination. Burmese pagodas are circular and temples are square. There are three groups of ecclesiastical monuments in Burma. The Bupaya pagoda at Pagan is about the earliest one being placed in 3 rd century A. D. The Baubaugyi pagoda in Prome consists of a solid mass in brick of a cylindrical form about 80 ft. high. The Abhayadana pagoda like the Seiunyet pagoda shows the bell-capital. In the Sapada and Tamani pagodas there is above the bell a square moulded plinth symbolic of the chamber in the basement, known as the Dhatugarbha or relic chamber. The most important in whole Burma is the great Shwe-Hmandan pagoda at Pegu ascribed to two merchants who raised it to 12 cubits and successive kings of Pegu raised it to the present height of 324 ft. above its terrace and 354 ft. above the country three or four centuries ago. Similarly was completed the Shwe Dagon pagodas at Rangoon starting from 27 ft. in height was raised to 129 ft. in 15 th century and to the present height of 321 ft. in 1768. The earliest example of the square temple or pagoda is the Lemyet-hna at Prome attributed to 8 th and 9 th centuries. It is about 24 ft. square and is built in brick with a solid pier 8 ft. square in the centre surrounded by a corridor 4 ft. wide. 1 Plate XLI, Fergusson, vol. ii, between pp. 360 and 361. 2 Wood cut 454, Fergusson vol. ii, p. 364. 3 Wood cut 357 " ii, p. 368. 4 Plate xxxvi, vol. ii, pp. 342-43. 5 Woodcut 447, vol. ii, p. 348.

There are two other classes of religious structures in Burma, known as Thein or ordination hall, and Pitakat Taik or secred library. The Upali Thein in Pagan dating from the 13 th century is a rectangular one divided into nave and side aisles by arcades. The centre aisle or nave is loftier than side aisles and is similar to the Chaitya or Christian church. There is a second Thein at Pegu dating from 1476. The Pitakat Taik at Pagan¹ was built by Anuratha in 1057 to house the Buddhist scriptures It is a copy of the Thaton library, square in plan; four parallel corridors round the central chamber or cell; the ground storey is of moderate height%; the roof consists of four storeys, set back one behind the other with ogee roofs between, resting direct on the vaults of the corridors. In Siam or the land of the Thais, the Venice of the east, corresponding to the Burmese Thein or ordination hall for priests there is the Bot of Vat Jai at Sukhodaya which stands within the Vat or enclosure of the temple opposite the principal entrance and behind a porch. The principal feature in the Bot, admission to which was confined to the priests, was the great altar carrying a gilded statue of Buddha, which was always placed in the central aisle, in the last bay but one. In its rear was the principal Phra or Stupa of the temple. The Phra Prang and the Phra Chedi are the two types.2 The upper part of the Phra Prang has a dome shape which may have been derived from the Buddhist Stupa in India or Burma, but the upright part looks more like the Sikhara of spire of a Hindu temple. The Phrachedi is based on the Stupas of India, but the cell containing the relics of Buddha is placed underground and reached in larger examples by secret passages in the thickness of the walls. At Sukhodaya there is one of the Phra chedis of Vat Jai and the Pathomchedi in Phra Pathom. Among other Siamese buildings Vihans or Viharas, and Kamburiens similar in design to Bot are the assembly halls where people assembled to offer prayers and listen to sermons. In the Vat Tha Sao at Ayuthia the central court with the great Phra in the centre is identical with those of Beng Mealea and Ankor Vat of Cambodia. The galleries round it and the towers 1 See plate XL of Fergusson, vol, ii, between pp. 356-357. 2 Plate XLVI of Fergusson vol. pp. ii, 406-407.

at the angles and in the centre of each front appear to have been carried out by the Cambɔlian architects. The Cambodian influence is shown also in the Vat Phra Prang Sam Yot at Lophaburi, which 'consists of three sanctuaries, cruciform on plan, side by side, with corridors. between them. Above each of these sanctuaries is a lofty tower with five receding storeys enriched with scul ptures. The Hall of Audience at Bankok' illustrates the bad taste of Bangkok Pegodas, palaces, porticos and dwelling houses showing the innate and irresponsible aspiration in architecture degenerating into vulgarity bscause "the new civilization in Siam is not indigenous the men of progress wearing European hats, the ladies French gowns, and the rich people building palaces with Corinthian porticos and sash windows' The Cambodian temples bearing Indian influence and built by the kings are classified under four groups. In the first group are placed the temples of Ta Prohm, Kedai, and Pre Rup in which the enclosures, generally three in number, are all on the same level. Secondly temples like Phimeanakas and Bapcun bear the pyramid shape and consist of seven narrow terraces rising one above the other. Thirdly the temples of Angkar Vat³ at Bayon, also pyramidal in form, are a combination of the first and the second groups and their enclosures, one within the other, are each raised from some 20 ft. above thelevel of that outside. And lastly the smaller temples consist of three or five sancturies placed side by side, the centre one being the most important, the whole being surrounded by a wall or moat. In many instances the enclosures take the form of a gallery or corridor which is roofed over with horizontal courses of stone corballed over till they meet at the top. The gateways to the several enclosures are called Gopura as in India and over the centre of the Gopura is a tower which in the entrance gateway of Angkon Thom is carved on each side with Brahma heads. In front of the Cambodian temples also within the enclosures as in India, there are tanks of water with 1 Wood cut 475 of Fergusson vol. ii, p. 412, Woodcut 462, and 462 vol. ii, pp. 384, 385. 2 See appended p'a'e.

stone borders and steps round. These not only provide water to the temples and the visitors but also serve as reservoirs of enormous dimenslons to supply water for agricultural and other purposes. The temple of Angkor Vat or city temple is situated between the city of Angkorthom and the lake Tonb Sap. Its walled enclosure measures 1030 yds by 1100 yds and its surrounded by a moat of 216 yds. wide. Its great gateway is five storeys in height of 180 ft Its shortest width north and south is more than 600 ft. It is thus higher and larger than Borobudar and has better ornamentation and more delicate carvings. The temple of Rameswara is equal to it only in colonnades, but inferior to Angkor Vat and Borobudar in architectural design and sculptural decorations. The galleries or colonnades at Angkar Vat are perfect in their mechanical arrangements and artistic design.¹ The general view of the temple of · Angkor Vat is equally grand and charming." The great temple of Bayon with fifty towers within the city walls of Angkor Thom belongs to the third group. It was founded by Jayavarman II and consecrated by Yasovarman about 900 A. D. The finest example of the pyramid temples is that of Bapuon south of the palace in Angkor Thom. But the more charming, is the temple or Nakhon Vat 3 Of Insul Indian or Indonesian islands Java supplies last examples of Inian temples. The earliest extant monument in Java is the great Barobudar. It is situated on the summit of an isolated hill. It is nearly a pyramid in form. It is describe as a seven storeyed or nine storeyet Vihara or monastery according as we reckon the platform on which the seventy two small dagobas stand as one or three storeys. Its basement measures over 460 ft. across but the real temple is only 300 ft. from angle to angle either way. But it is famous not for its dimensions or architectural design but for the 1 See plate from Fergusson's Woodcut 462, 463, vol. ii pp. 384, 385. 2 See appended plate and Fergusson Woodout 464, vol, it, p. 387. 3 See plate from elevation made by Fergusson's Woodcut no, 46. vol. ii, p, 382. 4 See appended plate.

remarkable sculptures that line its galleries The scul ptures in both faces of galleries in two storeys would extend over nearly 3 miles of ground. Buddhas includ. ing five Dhyani Buddhas, in groups of three, five, and nine are repeated over and over again. There are Bodhi sattvas and saints of all sorts. The sculptors must have been in:ported from India for, the character of the scul ptures and the details of the ornamentation are identical with those in cave 26 at Ajanta, 17 at Nasik and in the caves at Kanheri in Salsette, at Kondivte, Mayathana and other places It is assumed that Barobudar was erected between 650-750. But the builder or builders of this great monument are still unknown. It may however, be assumed that such a structure could have been constructed only with the patronage of some ruling authority if not by the ruler himself. In Java there still exist remains of several such temples, viz., Chandi Bhima, Chandi Arjuna, Chandi Jabang, Chandi Sari, Chandi Kali-Bening near Kalasan and Chandi Panataran. There is a second temple at Panataran, which is known as Serpent temple because whole of the basement moulding is made up of eight great serpents, two on each face, whose upraised heads in the centre form the side pieces of the steps that lead up to the central building. There is another temple of this class at Machanponthi of which the sub-base ment is composed of one tortoise and two serpents and the heads of these three animals uniting on the west face and forming the entrance. Apart from the fragmentary inscriptions found in some of the temples described above there are hundreds of copper plate inscriptions which contain more details of ecclesiastical endowments No elaborate citation of these historical documents is necessary. By way of illustration a few only are quoted below. They will show to what great extent the royal donors were anxious to renounce their complete right over the land and monetary grant they made to the temple authorities for the upkeep, repair, offerings, feeding of the poor and recluses, etc. Owing to the sentiment that no gift could bring sp ritual merits to the donor and his ancestors if it be not completely made over, the donee enjoyed the complete autonomy in the administration of the endowed property resulting in the creation of the small sovereign state within the bigger state but

causing some obvious administrative confusion concerning thieves, etc., who could take shelter and escape punishment by running from one state to the other. The Indor copper plate inscription of the time of Skandagupta dated, 465 A. D. records a perpetual endowmen for the purpose of maintaining a lamp in a temple of the Sun at Indrapura or modern Indor. This gift of a Brahman's endowment of the temple of the Sun is the perpetual property of the guild of oil men as long as it continues here or elee where should give for the same time as the moon and the sun endure two palas of oil (daily) uninterrupted in use and without any diminution. The transgressor is merely threatened with the criminal punishment due to the murderer (of a Brahman), theft of golit, adultery with preceptor's wife, drinking of intoxicating liquor, and abetting any of these crimes and the minor crimes like killing a cow' Four out of the five copper plate grants of the Parivrajaka Maharajas, and all seven copper plates of the Uchchakalpa Maharajas are records of endowments some of which are specifically made for temple purposes, some as gift to Brahmans, and some made as gratuity. Thus the Parivrajaka Maharaja Sankshobha in the enjoyment of sovereignty by the Gupta kings' made in 528 to Chhadugomin half of the village of Opani for the purpose of Bali or offering of grain, rice, etc., to gods and all creatures Charu or oblation of cooked food for the deceased ancestors, and Sattra or alms and refuge to the needy people, and for the purpose of renewing whatever may become broken or torn at the temple of the Goddess Pishta puri'. Here all right excepting the right to fines imposed on thieves and mischief doers is made over to the donee. No obstacle to the enjoyment of this grant is to be caused by his successors or feudatories as it is made to increase the religious merit of his parents and himself. The authority of the Mahabharata is quoted to the effect that 'preservation of a grant is more meritorious than making a grant and that the giver of land enjoys heaven for sixty thousand years but the confiscator of a grant and he who assents to an act of confiscation shall dwell for the same number of years in hell. The writer of the document was Iswaradasa and the king himself gave it in person and did not employ any 25

Dutaka or messenger to convey the orders to the local officials. The Maharaja Hastin of the same dynasty made three grants. In the first of 475 A. D. for the same purposes as in the previous instance he granted the village of Vasuntara-shapdika to the Brahman Gopaswamin and others with the Udranga and Uparikara implying some unforeseen income and with the privilege that it is not to be entered by the irregular or regular troops but with the exception of the right to fines imposed on thieves. In his grant of 482 A. D. the Agrahara of Korparika was made to Devaswamin and other Brahmans with same privileges and for similar purposes. In his grant of 510 A. D. the village of Valugarta was grantel to Govindaswamin and other Brahmans in the identical manner. The grant of the Maharaja Jayanatha of the Uchchakalpa dynasty, dated 493 A. D. is recorded in a niore legal form. "Be it known to you the cultivators that for the purpose of increasing my own religious nerit, the village of Chhandapallika is granted by me, being in good health, to the Brahman Mitraswamin with the Udranga and Uparikara and with the privilege that it is not to be entered by irregular or regular troops but with the exception of the right to fines imposed on thieves. You yourselves shall render to him the offer of the tribute of the customary royalties and taxes, and shall be obedient to his commands." His successors should assent to it and should not confiscate it and they should not take such taxes which by custom did not belong to the king. The authority of the Mahabharata is quoted here also regarding the criminal punishments, etc His other grant of 496 A. D. records the grant of the village Dhavashandika to the Brahman writer (divira) Sarvavada and his sons and suceessors for the royal temple of the god Vishnu for the purpose of repair and maintenance of Bali, Charu, Sattra, and other rites. The villagers including Brahmans and artisans were asked to offer to the new owners the customary duties, royalties, taxes, gold, etc., and to be obedient to their commands. The same warning and persuation are also added. The Maharaja Sarvanatha of the same dynasty made the grant in 512 of the village of Asramaka to the specified Brahmans in four shares with the same

conditions of repair of the temples of Vishnu and the Sun and maintenance not only of Bali, Charu, Sattra but also perfumes, incense, garlands, and lamps. He made two other grants one of which is dated 516 in the same way. His grant of 533 recorded the sanction of the Maharaja Sarvanatha to the transfer among private grantees of two villages named Vyaghra pallika and Kacharapallika for the purposes of a temple of the Goddess Pishta-purikadevi at the town of Manapura The Maliya grant of 517 records its issue from Kathiawad Gujerat by Maharaja Dharasena II of the Valabhi dynasty. It is stated that 'the king being in good health issues a command to all the officials, viz.. Ayuktakas, Viniyuktakas, Drangikas, Mahattaras, irregular and regular troops, Dhruvadhikanikas, Danda-pisikas, Rajasthaniyas, Kumaramatyas and others that some lands at the villages of Antaratra, Dombhigrama and Vajragrama are given by him with libations of water in accordance with the rule of land transfer to the Brahman Rudrabhuti for the maintenance of the five great sacrificial rites of the Bali, Charu, Vaisvadeva, Agnihotra, and Atithi (feeding of guests) to endure for all time and to be enjoyed by the succession. It was given together with the Udranga, Uparikara, vata, bhuta, grain, gold, and Adeya and with the right to forced labour and with the privilege that it is not to be even pointed at with the hand of undue appropriation by any of the king's people. And no one should cause obstruction to this person in enjoying it in accordance with the proper conditions of a grant to a Brahman, and cultivating it, or causing it to be cultivated, or assigning to another. As usual it was to be assented to and preserved by his successors as stated by the venerated Vyasa, the arranger of the Vedas. This charter was written by the minister of war and peace and contained sign manual of the king and it was conveyed or registered by a high official In 766 Siladitya VII of the same dynasty issued from his camp at the town of Anandapura a similar charter to record the grant to a Brahman of the village of Mahilabali. King Harshavardhana of Kanauj made similar grant in 632 from the camp of victory containing boats. elephants, and horses from Pinthika (Madhuvana) and announced that he had broken a forged edict on the

strength of which the Brahman Vamarathya enjoyed the village of Somakandika and taken it back from him and duly gave it to Bhatta Vataswamin and Bhatta Sivaswamin as an Agrahara and commanded the people to give these donees the share of the crops, objects of enjoyments, taxes, gold and service generation to after generation. The Deopara stone inscription of Vijayasena of the last quarter of the 11 th century contains reference to the erection of the temple of Pradyumneswara Siva to whom the king provided 'bright coloured dresses, a hundred lovely female attendants adorned with jewelornaments, towns filled with citizens and endless wealth'. In the very same way endowments were made in south of India also. But the Chammak copper plate of Maharaja Pravarasena II of the Vakataka dynasty issued in the 18 th year of his reign from the town of Pravarapi a in the Bhojakata kingdom corresponding to east Berar contains certain additional and legally useful conditions which are missing in the land-grants of East, North, and West India. The village of Charmanka in the Ilichpur district of east Berar measuring 8000 Bhumis was given to 1000 Brahmans. The high born royal officers employed in the office of general superintendents and regular soldiers and umbrella-bearers were commanded thus "Be it known to you that in order to increase our religion and life and strength and victory and dominion, and for the sake of our welfare in this world and in the next and generally for our benefit, this village is granted. in our victorious office of justice as a grant not previously made, with libations of water. Now we grant the fixed usage, such S befits this and such as has been approved of by former kings, of a village which belongs to a community of Chaturvedi (Brahmans); namely, it is not to pay taxes; it is not to be entered by the regular troops or by the umbrella-bearers; it does not carry with it the right to cows and bulls in succession of production or to the abundance of flowers and milk, or to the pasturage, hides and charcoal, or to the mines for the purchase of salt in a moist state; it is entirely free from all obligation of forced labour, it carries with it the hidden treasures and deposits and the Klripta and Upaklripta. It is to be enjoyed for the same time with the moon and the village

sun; and it is to follow the succession of sons and sons' sons. No hindrance should be caused by any one to those who enjoy it. It should be protected and increased by all possible means And whosoever disregarding this charter shall give or cause to be given even slight vexation, we shall inflict on him punishment together with a fine when he is denounced by the Brahmans. In this document which has at least the merit of religion, in order to avoid boasting of other meritorious actions performed by us we do not recite our care and protection of grants made by various kings who are dead and gone." Then the authority of Vyasa is quoted regarding preservation and confiscation. But unlike in the endowments to temple cr deities it is laid down here that this condition of the charter should be maintained by the Brahmans (donees) and by future lords, namely, enjoyment of this grant is to belong to the Brahmans for the same time with the moon and the sun, provided that they commit no treason against the kingdom consisting of seven constituent parts, rtz, king, his ministers, ally, territory, fortress, army, and treasury, of successive kings; that they are not slayers of Brahu ans and are not thieves, adulterers, poinsoners of kings, etc., that they do not wage war, and that they do no wrong to other villagers. But if they act otherwise, or assent to such acts, the king will commit no theft in taking the land away.' This citation shoul` make clear the legal position between royal donor and the two classes of the donees, namely, the managers of temples established already by the king, his ancestors or others, and those institutions like universities, colleges and monasteries, and those Brahmans and monks who are not associated with any temple property but who are given endow. ments by the king so that they may perform their communal and caste duties of learning and educating the society without anxiety for earning their livelihood. In the former case under no circumstances the grant is taken back but the manager may be changed, but in the latter case if the donens fall down from their noble pursuits they are deprived of the royal grant. Thus the state did not interfere with the administration of ecclesiastical property but the king enforced a standard of morality for those who lived on royal or public charity.

It should be noted that from the point of view of culture the temple is a monument at once of the social, economic, political and religious progress. Moreover arhitecture proper is the basic record of all fine arts. The idea at the root of a temple construction is religious. It is built to house the idol of god for the purpose of worship. It serves a social benefit of great value inasmuch as temple is not only a place for worship but it is a centre of learning there being schools, colleges and lecture halls and debating societies. Men and women, old and young, meet there on equal footing and exchange views and ideas. Thus the temple compound is an exhibition ground showing the economic and moral prosperity of the visitors, the wealth of the builder, the skill of the artists comprising architects, engineers, carpenters, sculptors, painters, decorators and other artisans. The inscriptions the temple itself and the copper plate records preserved by the priests and the managing body as quoted above show beyond doubt the amount of responsibility which the ruler felt for the moral and material progress of the people. Indeed of all the literary and monumental records dealing with the family, economic, political, and moral and religions life the institution of temple combines in itself all these phases of life of a civilized nation.