Philosophy (of ancient Indian culture)

The Purva-mimamsa of Jaimini is more a theology rather than a system of philosophy Its aim is to nter pret the practical matters of the Vedic sacrifices. According to it Dharma (religion) consi ts in the performance of the Vedic rites and sacrifices. Though not d voic of reasoning it assumes as in the theolo y proper, the Veda as the only god and authority and the performance of the Vedic sacrifices is the only means of propitiating the supernatural powers for the purpose of attaining the Moksha, release, emancipation or salvation and the heavenly bliss which is the sole aim of life (purushirtha). Jaimini does not feel the necessity of Go 1, the Vedic duties bringing forth the result automatically. The Vedanta system assumes an omniscient, omnipotent god as the efficient and material cause of the universe, its existence, continuance and dissolution. It admits the fruits of Vedic sacrifices; but God alone can give those fruits But the salvati nis achieved thr. ugh the true ki owlege of God. It is more philosphical because it aims at knowing the god by reasing (Brahma-jijnasa). By reason of ignorance or false knowledge (avidya, miya), it is assumed, an individual mistakes the world as well as its body and mind for realities. The moment the personal soul is set free from this ignorance by a proper understanding of the truth all the illusion vanishes, and the identity of the personal soul (jivitma and of the phenominal universe (pritibh sika jaga) with the supreme scul (parmatma) is re-established. A man persuaded of this knowledge that I am He and that you are He (aham Brahma, tat tvam asi) obtains release (mukti) and

salvation (nioksha) This is mainly the view of the famous commentator Sankara (c-800) But the equally famous commentator Ramanuja (c 1100) holds the view that Moksha is not the merging of individual souls and matter into the absolute but it is the blissful existence. While the Moksha of Sankara is won through the true knowledge of the absolute (jnana marga) the blissful existence of Ramanuja is attained through Bhakti or faith in and devotion to God (bhakti-marga). Thus Sankara represents the most sustained intellectual effort of In in thought, and Rimanuja represents a theory of the world which has many similarities to popular Christian belief." This Visishtadvaita system of Ramanuja admits of of three independent existences, viz., the supreme Being, the individual souls, and the visible world (drisya jagat). Thus it combines three separate doctrines, namely, unity. duality, and plurality. Unity is admitted in saying that all individual spirits and visible forms constitute the body of one spirit; Duality is admitted because the spirit of god and spirits of men are stated to be distinct; and Plurality is admitted in saying that the spirit of god, innumerable spirits of men, and the visible world are distinct. The Perva-prajna system of Madhava-siyana is a doctrine of Dua.ity because Vishnu is held to be the one eternal being and the individual soul and material world form the other entity. According to the Nyva systeni of Gautama God creates the world from the self existent atoms. Thus there are several individual sou s. The Apavarga or salvation can be achieved through the true knowledge, not only of God as in the Vedinta, but of all subjects and objects. This system aims at a correct method of phil sophical inquiry into pc sses or proofs throuzh which the mind arrives at the true and accurate knowledge of all obje ts an subjects. The four proofs (p amana) comprise sense-perception (pratyaksh), infrence (anu" ana), anal gy upamina)," and authority (sabda) of the Veda. The subjects (prameya) about which right knowledge is to be obtained by means of these reasonings include soul (atman), body (sarira), sense organs (indriya), matters or objects of sense (namely. dravya, guna, karman, saminya, visesha, and samavaya), cognition (buddhi), mind (manas). effort (pravritti), fault (dosha), 19

transmigration (pretya-bhava) fruition (phala), pain (duhkha), and manipation or salvation apavarga). These are the 12 chief ingredients or ca agories of knowledge. There are 14 other accessaries of knowledge and 7 more topics to prevent erroneous knowledge. False knowledge is at the root of all mi ery. From false knowledge comes fale liking, th nce mistaken activity, thence repeated births to reap the fruit of action. From birth proceed misery, and it is the im of the Nyaya philosophy to correct the false notions at the root of this miery It holds matter comp sed of uncreate at. ms, and souls eter al. It mentions God Isvara) o ce but does not rec gnize His moral attributes and government of the world. The Vai eshika system of harada, which is clos ly connected with Ny ya sistem, is based on he uncreate! eternal atoms along with th Ceator and individual souls While the Ny ya Sutra deals essen ially with logical reasoni g, the Vaiseshika represents a naturalistic view which fin sin atom: the basis of the material world. The individual souls are a'so eternal These atoms and souls exist side by side with the supreme scul of the universe. it doe not, however, mention Gd It believes in theal activity of the soul, holds the effect to be different from the cause and the qualities from the substance. it holds that Vise a is the cause of combination of atoms into various matters. According to it Nisreyas ultimate good or salvation is achieved through the true knowlege or subjects and objects when the soul is purified by the performance of fruitless action. It ads the non-exist-nce (abhiva) as the seventh to the six catagories of Ny.ya, iz., substance' dravya), quality 2 (guna), action (karman;, gener Hity (simany), particularity (vise ha, cc-inheritance (samavaya', and non-existence (abh.va) These categories, resembling those of Aristotle, supply a complete analysis of all 1 Prithvi (earth), apas water), tejas (light), vayu (air), akasa (sky), kila (time), dik (direction), atma (soul), and manas (mind). 2 Kupa (coloun), rasa (taste), gardha (odour), sparsa (touch). sankhya (number), san:yoga (conjunction), vibhaga (disjunction), parima (d mension), prithaka va (separateness), paratva (posterio. rity), aparatva (priority, gurutva (gravity), dravatva (fluidity), sneha (vicidity), Sabda (sound), buddhi (ntellect). sukha (pleasure), duhkha (sorrow), ichcha (desire', dvesha (abersion), prayatna (effort), dharma (nierit), adharma (demerit) and samiskara (impression).

existing things and deal with the whole phenomena of existence. The original view of the Nyaya and Vaiseshika Sutras as to God is uncertain, both saying very little on thtopic But by the sixteenth century the followers of both the systems became completely theistic. The divergences between the two schools being gradually reduced to minor points, the reasoning and working over of both the systems had to assume the theistic view. The Purva min.:sa and the Vedanta are th direct descendant of the Upanishads. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika systems do not at least go out of their way to challenge orth doxy, and ultimately adopt more and more the authority of the scripture. The Samkhya system of Kapila is atheistic because the existence of God cannot be proved (Isvarisiddhah). Though developed as a preliminary stage from Katha upanishad, it d es not adopt the authority of the Veda. The Absolute of the Up nishads tends to become meanin loss with the Sink ya. Matter is given the power of e.f-evolution and has no conexion witte Absolute. It postulates infinite i umber of spirits. Consci usness is explained by son e form of c: ntact etwee spirit and matt r. elease (moksba) is attained when the unr ality of any connexion betw en he two is appreciated. he s knya, however, adm ts the conception of three p inciples of properties (gunas), constit ents rather than qualities, which perva e nature and man alike, cz, Sativa (ge m. of creation, Rajas (desire for c:eation), an Tamas (ignorance of the effect (i creation .. Prakriti anc urush are the two prin ary agencies of creation But the eternal and uncha g able Purusha, comprisin countless souls of incivid als, is without qual ties a d propert es (guras) and inactive until combined w th rakriti who in th Tantras is recognize as the mot er of the universe. This system is based on 25 tattvas (e ements or dogmas)' of which the origins nt song; to be exp ained. It does not adopt the authority of the Ve a. It is expressly atheistic. But its ul.imate aim is also Moksha (releas) i l Five Karmendriya, five Jnanendriya, five Bhutas (prithivi, etc., five Tanmitrus (rupa, ra-., etc), and five categories comprising Buddhi, hankara, Manas, Piakr ti and Purusha. The true knowledge of the last two leads to the release (moksha) which is equivalent to the removal of pain. Fa

143' INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION unwhich is attaired through the knowledge of reality of any conn xion between spirit and matter. Samkhya means complete knowledge of the 25 tattvas (categori s) According to it action (karya) is included in the cause (karana). The ultimate cause of the world is Prakriti or Pradhara. The Purusha is not the enjoyer (bhokta of the Prakriti, because He is asanga (nirlipta) to any thing The three qualities of Prakriti are sattva. rajas and tamas, the equilibrium of which is changed by association with Purusha. Thus are originated mahat or buddhi, ahankara and the other tattvas. Purusha and individual so 1 imply the same idea. Due to ignorance Purusha appears as the enjoyer (bhokta). When this ignorance is remover all pains cease and release (noksha is obtained The Yoga system of Patanjali agrees in general principles with the Simkhya system. While the latter is based on 25 elements (tattvas) the former assumes 26 dogmas including God as the twenti-sixth. Thus Yoga is expressly theistic assuming the existence of God but Samkhya is atheistic not acknowledging God openly. This supreme Being (Om) of the Yoza is a soul different from the secondary or individual souls unaffected by the ills with which they are beset. The great end of the Yoga doctrine is to obtain union (yoga) between the supreme soul and the individual souls by the suppression of the function of heart or desire (chittavritti.uirodha) through restrain (yama), performance of rites (niyama), practice of postures (asana) of which there are 84, regulation of breath (pra ayama), withdrawal or restraint of senses (pratyah ra), fixed attention (dharana), contemplation (dhyana). and meditation (samadhi) The aim of these practices is to obtain concentration, the means towards it, and the winning by it of supernatural powers and the state of Kaivalya (emancipation detachment of soul from matter). Of these six main systems the aim is the same. According to Nyaya the true knowledge of 16 palarthas leals to Nireyas (ultimate good), which is also the aim of the Vaiseshika for which knowlege of six categories is required. The Moksh (release) of the Sankshya is achieved by the know edge of the 25 categories. The heavenly bliss (varga sukha of the Parvamimati Sa is achieved by the correct exformance of the Vedic rites. And the Mukti (emancipation) of the 1

Vedanta is obtained through the true knowledge of God (Brahma). The poular materialistic system is known as the Lokayata (of popular control) and Charvika (of peasent expression). The sun maries of the syster, made not by their adher nts but by their opponents, ascribe the original authorship to the teacher of the infidels, Brihaspati Thus in the estimation of the opponents, the followers of the system prove the birth of spirit from matter and that when the body is dissolved in death the spirit ceases to be "Taey, therefore, commended only the pleasures of the b dy, ridiculing the doctrine of the reward to be reared in beaven by those who made the Vedio sacrifice." This creed asserts that soul is not different from b dy and that the pheromena of the world are produced spontaneously without any agency. It admits four eternal principles (tattvas), viz. earth, air, fire and water. It rejects the sources (pramanas) of true knowledge except the sense perception Thus it ignores not only the authority of the Veda but also the common sense view of inference (anumana and analogy (upan ana. Such pure materialstic creed could naturally claim no morality. Thus the end it aims to attain is not Moksha (release) cr freedom from sorrow or imperfection even of the frail body but the transitory pleasure of eating and drinking at all cost because one can die to morrow. It is illogical and shows a degraded mentality and lack of intelligence (buddhi) out of which, however, consciousness is stated to have been produced. The philosophical categories of the Jainism followed the materialistic principles of the Vaiseshika school. Thus it adopts the atomic theory to explain the creation without the agency of a personal god. It is a dualism, not of individual souls and supreme soul, but of individuals human actions and matter (natural forces). Human ils are the result of former acts The misery of existence is due to the ignorance of these facts. The salvation moksha) or cure for sufferings lies in the prevention of new acts (karman) from encumbering cur fundamental freedom and in the dissolution and elimination of the Karman accun ulated in it 'The warmth of asceticism hastens the ripening of the results of Karman, and effects a cleansing which, returning each substance to its place, restores us to our native purity." The

' ig orance which gives rise to miseries can be removed by a guide (guru) and the asceticism is chieved by observing four vows, riz. ahimsi (not to kill any life), astega (not to steal, sunrita to spe k the truth and brahmacharya (to cbserve chastity. According to some aparigraha (non-acceptance of unnecess ry things is the fifth vow. These two or three prohibitions and two actions lie within the moral powers of man. They do not depend upon destiny within our own nature (svabhava, nor upon an externa. arbitrary fate (niyati). As the traditional Jain philosophy could not le rationalized there was no serious development of metaphysics in it. hui It Buddhism is strictly a form of religion rather than a system of philosophy, its confuse: philosophical doctrines being derived from its religious dogmas. consists of the implicit faith in the Buddha, the Sangha (community of his followers), and the Dharma rule of conduct) widich comprises the duties assigned by the Buddha to the house-holder lay desciples and to monks and nuns who live as ascetics in monasteries The house-hold disciples are required to observe the rules of not to kill, not to steal, not to lie, not to drink and not to have un'a ful sexual intercourse; they are further required to provide for the maintenance of the clergy (monks and nus, and to take par; in their feasts. The ascetic disciples are required to abstain from sexual intercourse, to renounce all possessions except yellow robe and belt, a rise-bowl, a razor, a needle, and a strainer to prevent invisible life with water), and not to accept any money but to live on begging (cooked) food. The other practices (both for househ luers and ascetics include the recitation of formulas that Buddha Dharnis, and Saughs are true, and adoration of the relics of Bud ha and Arhats, and pilgrimage to holy places and stupas which commemorate events of spiritual nature The method of religious practices gave rise to the two sects of Buddists, the Hinayina and the Mahayana schools The Hinaanists who came first worship the relics of the ruddna and not of the Bochisattva, and have their canon cal books written in Pali as in Ceylon, Siam, and Burma The Mahayanists worship the re.ics of Budiha as preserved as Sanchi stupa and other places) as well as the images of Bodhisattvas and Buddha

= 151 (as preserved in Gandhara, Ajanta, Ellora, Amaravati. Sarnath, etc. and their canonical treatises are generaliy found written in Sanskrit and trans aed into Chinese and Tibetan. The Hinayana sect follows the path of ac tion (k::ruan) and knowledge (jnana) while the Mahayana sect follows the path of devotion bhakt: marga) According to the Mahavastu Avadana Buddhists were at first dividea into ti ree groups, viz the Icdhisattva y ni who aimed at bodhi or enlightenment for all; the pratycka Euddhayana who waned perso; al salvation by renuncia tion and ascerticism; and the Sravaka-y na who wanted to wait to hear from another Buddha for salvation. The Hinayana sects incorporated the first and secon. groups and the Mahayana the first group. The thira group aoes not seem to exist. Huayanists were known as non-idolators and the Mahayanists as idolworshippers.