Civil administration (in ancient India)

The branches of Civil administration are indicated by the departmental heads and superintendents of various offices. The general principles of administration were drawn from local usages and from the Institutes of the sacred law as stated by Manu (viii, 3). Thus the judicial devices and the legal rules were constantly mingled with moral exhortations. A distinction was however recognised in the treatment of civil and criminal law In regard to rules on judicial procedure and Civil law, Manu discusses more elaborately 'the moral side of the duties, incumbent on the judge and the other persons concerned than to the technicalities which are much more minutely described in the Dharniasastras of Yajnavalkya and Narada¹ Among the ancient law books the Vasishtha Dharmasastra (xvi, 10, 14-15) is the only authority which alludes to written documents and names therein. The aim of thadministration was to eradicate offences. The king's two-fold duties, according to Kautilya, included enforcing the recognised laws and promoting new laws (Dharma Pravartaka). Thus the justice consisted in promoting the dharma and vyavahira The former safeguarded the correct conduct of life in matters of the Samskaras or the sacramental duties of parents towards children, and sacrifices or social and public duties of a householder and the observance of asramas of four castes. Vyavahara safeguarded laws like contract, agreement, trade, purchase, sale, pact, etc. The aim of justice was also to promote achara and charitra, that is, traditional usage and practice by the aristocratics, and sasana or royal degree. 1. For further details see Weber, History of Indian Literature pp. 279-281 Stenzler Yajnavalkya, pp. vii.x; Journal of the German Oriental Society, vol. ix: Jolly, Tagore Law Lectures, pp. 45.49.

In conformity with the general aim of the civil admistration there were protective laws in general (dharmasthiya) and penal laws of police measures to eradicate offences (kantaka-sodhana). Thus the civil law was based on the principle of maintaining prosperity (dhana-samudbhava) and the criminal law on checking the tendency to retard law and order (himsa-samudbhava). The court of justice was formed of eight classes of officers. The king passed the final degree The chief justice pronounced the sentence. The judges examined facts and scrutinized evidence in order to arrive at a correct decision. The law books comprising local usages and dharmasastras were the authorities and guide of the trial judges. In doubtful cases the judgment had to be confirmed by ordeals of gold, water, fire, etc. The Court Accountant assessed damages and fines according to law. The scribe or the trial clerk wrote the judgment from dictation of the judge and passed orders of the court. The usher guarded the court room in order to provide undisturbed atmosphere. The judge was assisted by three assessors as stated by Manu (viii, 10) The interpretation of the recognized law was entrusted to a learned Brahmana probably the prime minister (vii, 20). The administration of justice was entrusted to three members acquainted with sacred law (dharmasthas) and three ministers (amatyas) of the king (as stated by Kautilya Book III, chap i, 148). 1 The titles that gave rise to law-suits as stated by Manu viii, 47) included eighteen topics: the non-payment of debts; de osit and pledge; sale without ownership; concerns among partners; resumption of gifts; nonpayment of wages; non-performance of agreements; recession of sale and purchase; dispute between owners. of cattle and his servants, dispute regarding boundaries; as- lt; defamation; theft, robbery and violence; adultery, duties of man and wife; partition of inheritance, and gambling and betting. In dealing with any of these suits the judge was require l, as stated by Kautilya (Book VIII, chap. ix 221) not to threaten, browbeat, send out or unjustly silence any one of the disputants in his court. He was required not to defame or abuse any of them. He was not to omit, to ask what ought to be asked and was not to ask what

ought not to be askel. He was not to leave out of consideration what he himself had asked and directed. He was not to make unnecessary delay in discharging his duty, postponing work with spite or causing parties to leave the court by tiring them with delay. He was not to evade or cause to eva'e statements that would lead to the settlement of the case He was not to help witnesses giving them clues cr to resume cases already settled or disposed The tr al lerk was required to be careful to record what had been deposed by parties and was not to enter what had not been deposed He was not to evade what had been indistinctly said or he was not to render either diver e or ambiguous in meaning such depositions as were satisfactorily given out. The chief justice was required to revise without any rejudice the findings of the court the interpretation of the recognised law by the expert Brahman counsel, the estimate of damages and fines calculated by the court accountant, and to be satisfiel that the trial was conducted without interrup ion by disturbance. Thus the chief justice acted as a revision court and there appears to have been no summary trial however pett a case might have been. The assessors whom the jude had to consult provided further check upon the miscarriage of justice. The king himsel who had to approve of the revised judgment by the chief justice had to be careful beca' se tere appears to have been a curious provision of a fine for the king also. I; is stated clearly by Kautilya (Book iv, chap xiii, 234) that 'when the ling punishes an i nocent man, he shall throw into water dedicating to Go Varuna a fine equal to h rty times the unjust imposition, and this am unt shall after a ds be d strit uted among the Brahmans. This shows that despite all precautions misca riage of strict justice was possible and that the king himself was not beyond the scope of law. There could certai ly be no higher ideal of justice and impartiality in the eyes of law. the i The punishment prescribed will indicate that " were never vindictive. Despite doubtful refe.ences in general literature to capital punishment or removal o certain libs the most most recognised foms of punishmet e mprised as stated y Manu (VIII, 129, at the caset a gentle admonitio, afterwards harsh reprove, thirdly a fine, and af er that corporal chastisement including probably imprisonment and 17

loss of a limb or life. Kautilya has referred throughout his Arthasastra to a long list of fines for spies for false information, for neglecting to maintain dependent persons, for killing an elephant, that is, cruelty to animals, for deception in gems, for driving out robbers by a hint, that is, for abetting robbery. for loss and misappropriation of royal revenue, for the fabrication of accounts and neglecting to prepare and check the account, for falsehood of a minister, for not enforcing the king's orders, for false accusation of a government servant, for negligence of one's duties, for niggardiness and extravagance, for carelessness in the manufacture of coins, for adulteration of salt, etc., for manufacture of salt withcut licence, for entrance into the mint without permission, for artisans for neglect of work, for manufacture of gold and silver articles outside the prescribed place, for using unstamped weights and measures, for deception in manufacturing gold and silver articles, for misnaming merchandise, for enhancing the value of articles, for not paying the toll, for smuggling, for importing forbidden articles, for purchasing minerals directly from mines for purchasing flowers and fruits from gardens and grain from fields without giving the royal share, for not doing the work paid for, for adultery in the weaving factory, for stealing articles in the weaving factory, for carpenters for not doing their works, for unauthorised manufacture of liquor, for trespassing in the reserve forests, for killing or molesting harmless beasts, for false weight for selling rotten flesh; for a prostitute for entrusting her jewellery to any other persons and for mortgaging her property. and for defamation for not fulfilling engagements. for murdering her lover, for voilating, abducting or hurting a prostitute; for fording rivers, for neglect of duty by cowherds, for cowherds for milking cows many times a day, for letting bulls to fight, for grooms for neglect of work and for riding horses against orders, for carelessness in treating the disease of animals and in rearing animals; for travelling without a pas, for not reporting arrival and departure of stranger: for keeping fire against order and not keeping any instruments to extinguish fire and not helping to extinguish fire, for causing the outbreak of fire, for throwing dirt in the street, for committing nuisance in the street, for throwing carcass of animals inside the city, for taking a dead body through forbidden road, for cremating dead bodies in forbidden places. for moving in the streets

of the city at night after the trumpet sound, for moving near royal buildings, for moving with clubs in the city; for watchmen for adultery and for neglect of their duty for an officer for not reporting nocturnal nuisance; for taking part in illegal transactions, for entering into fraudulent agreements, for self-assertion and making false complaints; for a wife for disobedience, for husband for cruelty to wife, for a woman for transgression, for wife for the contempt of her husband, for adultery, for a woman for making forbidden transaction, for a wife for going out of her husband's house, for a woman for taking another man's wife into her house, for preventing a woman from helping kinsmen when necessary, for a woman for not helping during child birth, for going to another village, for accompanying strangers on her way, for illegal remarriage; for not making water-course and drains near the house, for not keeping the fire place, corn mill, etc., in the house, for damaging neighbouring houses and water courses, etc., for unlawful occupation of a house, for a tenant for forcing cut of the house another tenant, for obstructing the use of any part of the house intended for common use; for bidding in the sale of a property in the absence of its owner, for selling things to any other but the bidder, for destroying boundary marks, for encroachment upon boundaries, for walking on crops, for closing the sluice gate of tanks, for obstruction to roads, for encroachment upon a neighbouring field, for selling and mortgaging land to persons who are not cultivators; for Brahmans for selling or mortgaging Brahmadeya lands to non-Brahmans; for the headman of a village for banishing a villager and for villagers for doing the same; for alowing cattle to trespass or to stray, for driving cattle through a field, for hurting cattle; for a labourer for not doing the work as agreed upon, for not taking part in a work beneficial to the whole village, for exceeding the anthɔrised rate of interest, for claiming more than the amount lent out, for a creditor for refusing to receive the payment of his debt and thereby stopping his exaction of interest, for running away without paying a debt, for master and servant suing each other instead of compromising themselves; for bearing false witness, for misappropriating a deposit, for not reconveying a pledge, for enslaving an Arya, for deceiving a slave, for employing slaves in mean works, for violating the chastity of a slave-woman or a nurse etc., for committing rape with a slave-girl, for selling a pregnant slave woman without provision for her

confinement for failure to set a slave free on receipt of a ransom, for keeping a slave in confinement, for euslaving a liberated slave; for failure to pay wages, for misappropriating wages, for a labourer for putting off work, for an employer for not taking work from his labourers; for guilds of workmen for taking away any thing from places of work and for leaving any thing undone and for deserting their company; for a sacrificer for dismissing a priest; for merchants for refusal to give delivery of an article sold; for a superintendent for causing a merchandise to perish; for giving a girl in marriage without announcing her blemishes; for concealing a bride groom's blemishes; for selling diseased birds; for receiving gratification, money etc. by intimidation; for conspiracy to hurt a person; for showing haughtiness to the king; for running away with a stolen property; for claiming a lost property not one's own; for making possession of an unclaimed property without permission; for improper proceeding against ascet cs; forpilfering; for cattle-lifting; for seepin persons in prisons, for releasing prisoners by force, for abetment of robbery, for using abusive expressions for intimidation and defamation, for causing a man to fall down, for striking and hurting a man, for robber, in a quarrel, for causing damage to the wall of another's house, for throwing hurtful things inside the house of others, for beating animals with sticks, for cutting off branches of fruit trees; for gambling outside the gan. bling house, for substituting dice and false play iu gambling, for the superintendent of a gan.bling ho se for the neglect of his duties; for not returning borrowed or hired things, for sitting under the shade of a tree longer than allowed; for deception in paying a cess or freight while passing rivers etc; for causing a row. for not delivering an entrusted property; for dragging the wife of a brother and adultery with her; for selling bad things; for oreak ing open the locked door of a house, for hurting, for misappropriation of the revenue of a private person; for adultery with a widow; for a Chandala touching an Arya woman; for not rescuing a person in danger; for feeding Buddhists and Ajivikas in an ancestral ceremony; for unautho ised criminal trial; for impersonating a government servant; for rendering quadrupeds impotent, for caus ing abortion to a female slave by medicine etc.; for father and son for abandoning eaca otirer, for abandoning a helping person, for deserting company in travelling together, for illegal confinement, for artisans for postponing

engagements; for deception in spinning and weaving by substituting other yarns; for washermen for washing on rough stones; for wearing unstamped clothes, for selling or mortgaging those clothes or substituting them, for keeping clothes longer than allotted period; for gold. smith for purchasing gold and silver articles from suspicious hands; for deception in manufacturing articles and for stealing gold etc.; for the examiner of coins for declaring a tampered coin to be good, for misappropriation of coins by tampering, for nanufacturing and using counterfeit coins, or depositing the same into the treasury; for scavangers for taking precious stones, for taking possession of a treasure trove and for stealing the same; for a physician for carelessness in treatment; for musician for too much indulgence; for using false balances, for deception in counting and in trade, for causing annoyance to artisans, for traders for preventing sale, for middlemen for deception, for adulteration of articles, for enhancing prices. for not rescuing person carried by floods and from a tiger, for receiving bribes, for extortions for false witnesses, for witchcraft, for poisoning, for robbery, for association with the condemned, for false accusation, for concealing a thief, for the use of false seals, for wilful proceedings of a judge, for the misdeeds of a clerk, for unjust punishments, for false judgment, for releasing prisoners. for letting out debtors from lockup, for the superindendent of a jail for bribery, for causing prisoners to escape, for adultery in a jail, for mutilation of limbs for pick-pocketing. for impersonating, for blinding a person, for fabricating the king's order, for removing the images of gods and their ornaments etc., for illegal possession of anything; for causing fatal wounds, abortion and death; for spreading false rumours, for obstructing travellers, for house-breaking, for cremating the condemned, for helping murderers etc., for treason against the kingdom, for forcing entrance into the harem, for creating disaffection, for patricide, for breaking the dam of a tank, for wife for murdering her husband, for setting fire to pastures, for stealing weapons, for disregarding kitchens of Brahmans, for insuting the king, for castrating a man, for hurting another, for defiling a maiden, for impersonating a bridegroom, for deception and securing a bride, for substituting a maiden in marriage, for carnal connection with a slave, for keeping a relative's woman. for giving prohibited food etc, to Brahmans etc., for mounting the roof of one's own as well as of others at

night, for breaking fences of villages etc., for construction of unstable houses, for stealing the rope of an animal, throwing stones etc, at carts, for not rescuing a man from beasts, for causing horned animals to fight, for causing hurt by letting loose untamed animals, for stealing or riding on a dedicated animal like the bull, for rash driving, for unnatural sexual connection, for a nun for adultery, and for concealing or hoarding grains and for the king for miscarriage of justice (Book iv. chap iii, 234). Even the Brahmans were not exonerated from the payment of a fine and the people of other castes had to pay in kind if they were unable to pay in cash as stated by Manu (ix. 229). 'A Kshatriya, a Vaisya and a Sudra who are unable to pay a fine shall discharge the debt by labour; a Brahman shall pay it by instalment'. These particulars should clarify several disputed points regarding the civil administration. First of all these various fines will indicate the thorough and complete vigilance of the government Then, all these laws are not to be found in the Dharmasastras. The rates of fines for various minor offences must have been fixed by the king in consultation with his councils which thus prove to be a sort of legislative bodies also and ma e laws of local and periodical interest. The next point to note is that in the eyes of law all people of the state were equal, all individual officials or non-officia's and all communities including the Brahmans who are falsely accused of partiality in making laws were punished in the same way for same or similar offences. Unlike in other nations the king himself set a noble example by providing a penalty on him for an offence of omission or commission in the discharge of his royal duties as an individual member of the state. Similarly all corelatives were punished for failure of duties riz. both husband and wife, parents and children, the ruler and the ruled, servant and the master, the employer and employee, the trader and the customer including the washerman and the milkman. Cognizance was taken of all sorts of laxity and sexual immorality, theft, deception, fraud, breach of contract or implied agreement, trespass, negligence and aiding and abetting others in unlawful deeds. Treatment of women and the weak and a standard of sexual morality as already pointed out are examples

at once of the individual liberty and the sovereignty of the state. The standard of a civil administration is clearly indicated by the rules of taxation and punishment laid down to regulate the social life. It is stated by Kautilya (Book iv. chap. xii, 229-231) that he who defiles a maiden before she has reached her maturity his hand would be cut off and fine imposed but if the maiden dies in consequence the offender should be put to death No man shall have sexual intercourse with any woman against her will. He who defiles a woman of maturity without her consent should be heavily punished and shall receive lesser punishment when the offence is done with consent. But it would be no offence for a man of equal caste and rank to have connection with a maiden who has been unmarried for three years after her first menses. For committing intercourse with a woman outside a village or for spreading false report regarding such things, double the usual fines shall be imposed An instance of capital punishment and less of a limb inflicted on rare occasions is supplied by the passage quoted above. Thus all the four forms of punishment illustrated above will show that the principle of punishment in ancient India was never vindictive but the object was corrective and deterrent. Considering all the points of civil administration it is justified to hold the view that 'no higher principle of civil administration is known to exist anywhere even at modren times.' As regard the Army Command the cffice of the Senapati, the commander-in chief, goes back to the earliest times of the Vedas, the Epics, the Buddhist and the Jain texts, and the Puranas. In the historical period, as in the time of the Iniperial Guptas, newer and more significant military titles came into use Thus in the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudra Gupta Maha-danda nayaka, great leader of forces, was used as a technical military title. The officer who held this rank was the superior of the Danda. nayakas, lead r of forces. We also meet with titles Dandanatha, Dan- dadhinatha, Dandadhipa, Dandadhipati, Dandesa, and Dandesvara as synonyms when danda means army or forces. Similarly Chamunatha, Chamupa, Chamupati, etc., in which chamu means 'army' are used in the Kargudari inscription of Vikramaditya VI and Tailapa II as commander-in chief of the army. In the Bala-

gamve inscription Dandanayaka is defined as samastasenigresara or leader of the whole army. In the Allahabad pillar inscription Samdhi-Vigrahakika, lit. an officer for peace and war, is used as a technical military title. In the Indian Antiquary (vol. iv, p. 125, vol vii p 70; vol. viii p 20) are found used synonymous titles Samdhi-Vigrah-adhikaranidhikrita Vigrahadhikrita and Samdhi-vigrahin coupled with Mahapradhana and Danda-nayaka. The next higher grade was that of Maha-sandhi-vigrahika which is used in the Khoh grant of Mahar ja Hastin of the year 163. Several other titles of lower grades must have been used. The tradition has been retained by the title of Nayaka used in modern Indian army-commander of a small unit. Kings themselves led the army as stated not only in Vedic texts but also in the Ramayana. Ramachandra and Lakshmana with the monkey-general Hanuman conquered Ravana and rescued Sita Arjuna, Duryodhana, Bhishma, Karna and others of the Mahabharata fame fought personally at the battle-fields Abhimanyu, 16 year son of Arjuna fought against the combined attack of seven generals of the Kaurava army. Chandragupta Maurya in the 4 th century B. C. gallantly opposed the Grecian army. In the 4 th century AD Sar udragupta is stated in his Allahabad pilar inscription to have been 'skilful in engaging in a hundred battles of various kinds' and he was praised because his 'mot charming body was covered over with all the beauty of the mark of a hundred confused wounds' caused by a number of the then known weapons. His great grandson Skand-gupta as stated in the Junagarh Rock inscription of 455-58 A. D. won victory in he countries of the Mlechchhas, an in conquering the Fushyamitras in order to restore the fallen fortu es of his family spent the whole night on the bare earth in the batt efield' as de cribe in his Bh'tari pillar inscription. Inst nces like these may be multiplied ad infinitum. According to Minu (vii, 65-66) alth ugh tharm: commands d pend or the military officers placed in charge of it, the due control on the army, the treasury nd governmert of he realm as a whole resus with the king. and peace and war with the ambassador who alone makes king's allies and separate-allie- and transacts that business by which the kings are united or disunited Traditionally the forces comprised four armis, riz. foot, horse, chariots, and elephants as constantly mentio ed ·

! LIFE AND INDIVIDUAL LIBFRTY I 137 ithe Epics and other branches of Sa skrit literature. But the navy was not unknown. Even king Har ha of Kanauj makes mention of nau, 'n vy, along with the four traditional arms in his three i scriptions. Kautilya in his Arthasistra menti nº a sixth br nch, the armamen or munitions of war including the great guns with which ship is armed. In addition to those weapons described in the Mahabharata and other early lie ture we come acr ss an interesting list in he Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupt viz. battle ax (parasu), arr ws (sara), spears (sarku), pikes (sakti), barbed darts prasa), swords asi), lances (tomara), javelins for thr wing (bhindipala, iron arrows (naracha) pistol or small hand gun of the size of a span (vaitastika) and many others. Fire-arms of other kinds sounding like the latest atomic bombs vagu-ly called the agneyastra in the Ma' abharata were Iso used obviously from some kind of field gun or artillery. Great heroes like Arjun conducted painstaking researches. in order to discover new weapans to deal with the powerful enemy as significantly describd by Bhiravi in his Kir tarjuni a. 1 ' The strategy of war in co ducting a campaign ard manoeuvring an army was w 11 understood. Flaborate descriptions available in variou branch s of Sanskrit literature cncerning the military posts, season of expedition, and technical devices for overp wering the enemy¹ A regular army was maintained and military expenditure formed a special ite in the budget. Thus came into being a whole class of warriors who ubsequently were crsolidated into a caste whose prof ssion it was to b trai ed in warfare. Tr ining was given n various kinds of fighting as in open country, in holl w ground by saps and trenches, by day and by night. According to Manu (VII, 87-95) king who is defied by fces of superior, equal or weaker strength mut not shrink from battle remembering the caste duties of Ksha riyas or warriors viz. not to turn back in battle, to protect the people, not to strike with weapons conceal d in wood, nor with such as are barbed, oisoned 1 Compare the complaints raised during the last world war II regarding the use of atomic bombs, pilotless air planes and many other unfair means. 18

138 or INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION ) the points of which are blazing with fire, not to strike one who is in flight nor one wh surrenders saying 'I am thine', nor one who joins the palms of his hands in supplication. no · ne who sleeps in fatigue, who has lost his coat of mail (weapons for protection), who is disa med and is not fighting or is engaged with another foe, por ore whose weapons are broken, who is afflicted with sorrow, has been grievously wounded, or in fear or as turned to fligh: But the duty of an honourable warrior does not permit him to turn back in fear. j The duty of the king is to protect and not to oppress subjects (Manu, vii 2-3. 35, 80, 88, 111-112, 142- 144; viii 172, 303-309 ix. 253; x 8, 119) but to punish the wicked vii, 14-34; viii. 302-303, 31 -311, 335, 343-347; ix 252-293, 312, to shun the eighteen vices (vii. 44-53), to build safe residence and fortress (vii. 69-76) and to fight bravely and honourably (vii, 87-97, 184-204 x. 119). In this last assage the whole strategy and expedition is elaboratec. "Ihe king should leisurely proceed for warfare agains' the enemy's capital after having duly arranged all affairs in his own kingdom and what relates to the expedition, having secured a basis for his operations, having duly dispatched his spies, having cleared the thres kin is of roads, and having made his sixfold army efficient. He must be very much on his guard agains a friend who secretly serves the enemy and against les-rters who return from the enemy's camp. He should the march on his road, arraying his troops in an oblong like a staff or in a wedge like a waggon, or in a rhombus like a boar, or in two triangles with apieces joined like a Makara, or in a long line like a pin, or in a rhomboid with far extended wings like the Garuda bird. IIe should always himself encamp in an array shaped like a lotus and 1 Hunting, gambling, sleeping by day, excess with women, drunkenness, inordinate love for dancing, singing and music, and useless travels-these ten set of vices spring from love of pleasure ; the eight fold set of vices produced by anger consist of tale bearing, violence, treachery, envy, slandering, unjust seizure of property, revelling, and assault.

extend his troops from whatever side he apprehends danger. He should allot to the commander-in-chief, to the subordinate generals, and to the superior officers places in all directions and turn his front in that direction whence he feais danger. On all sides he should place troops of soldiers on whom he can rely, with whom signals have been arranged, who are expert both in sustaining a charge and in charging. fearless and loyal. He should make a small number of soldiers fight in close order or extend a large number in loose ranks, or make them fight arranging a small number in the needle array and a large number in the thunderbolt array. On the even ground he should fight with chariots (tanks) and horses, in water-bound places with bcats and elephants, on ground covered with trees and shrubs with bows, o hill ground with sw rds, targets and other weapons. He should let the tall and light soldiers fight in the van of the battle. As the supreme commander he should carefully inspect the troops and encourage them by an address. He should also mark the behaviour of the soldiers when they engage the enemy. When he has besiegel a town an shut up his foe within it he should sit encamped, harass his enemy's kingodm, and continually spoil his grass, food, fuel, and water, and destroy the tanks, ramparts and itches, and assail the foe unawares and alarm him at night. He should instigate to rebellion those who are open to such instigations, and keep hims-lf corres.ly informed of his foe's doings, and at an opportune moment he should fight without fear, trying to conquer his foes at first by conciliation, by well applied gifts and by creating dissensions, used either separately or conjointly, and never by fighting by fighting if it can if it can be avoided because victory and defeat in the battle are as experience teaches uncertain. But when those three expedients fail he should duly exert himself and fight in such a manner that he may completely conquer his enemies. When he has gained victory he should grant exemptions, The seizure of and proclaim promises of safety. desirable property which causes displeasure and its distribution which causes pleasure are commendable if resorted at the proper time. But he should ascertain the wishes of all the conquered- and place there a relation of the vanquished ruler on the throne and impose on him his conditions. He should make authoritative n

and the lawful customs of the inhabitants, and honour the new king and his chief servams with precious gifts.¹ The scientific achievement and the high standard of morality indicated by the details of the military administration remain unsurpassed even by the latest strategy of modern warfare. There can be no douot that these principles were adhered to and actually practised by the historical kings of the Hindu pericd. The king Puru challenged the worl onqueror Alexander the Great and d. c'ared to be treated like Q king. The king Asoka treated the vanquished enemy at the Kalinga war with cor sideration. Samudragupta entranced his glory by showing favour in capturing and then liberating kngs Mahendra of Kosala, Vyaghraraja of Maha antara, Mantaraja of Kerala, Mahen tra of Pishtapura Sv midatia of sottura, Damana of Erandapalla, Vishnugopa of Kanchi, Nilarija of Avamukta, Hastivarma of Hastivarma of Vengi, Ugrasena of Palakka, Kubera of Devarashtra, Dhananjaya of Kurthala pura, and all other kings of the region of the south. He exterminated Rudradeva, Matila, Nagadatta, Chandravarman, Ganapatinaga, Nagasena, Achyuta, Nandin, Balavarman and many other kings of the north (Aryivarta). He made all the kings of the forest countries his allies and servants. He secured with grace obeisance, obedience and taxes from the frontier kings of Samatata, Davaka, Kamarupa, Nepala, Kaitripura and other countries and from the tribal heads or Malavas, Arjunavanas, Yaudheyas, Madrakas, Abhiras, Prarjunas, Sanacanikas, Kakas, Kharaparikas and other tribes. Ile re-established many royal families fallen and deprived of sovereignty who became his firm allies an included Devaputras, Shahis, Shihanushahies, Sakas and Murandas. people of Simhala and other islands also submitted to him.2 The Thus it should be noted that Sanskrit treatise on government is not a mere "scholastic aprori air". The enumerations and distinctions are not forced on the l It should be noted that the modern vegy has not much im proved upon these plans of attack. 2 Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Sumudra Gupta, lines 19-25.

facts' but can be scientifically extracted from the analysis of them.1 Professor Keith, however, declares that the Kautiliya Arthasastra asserts that 'government is essential to them all; without it there would be the reign of anarchy everywhere; under the sceptre the four castes and their ordered ways of life prosper, Kama, Artha, and Dharma fulfil ed; while with Machiavelli the "State is all in all." In a vague manner, the Arthasastra means by the 'state' an order of society "which the state does not create but which it exists to secure". The end of the government, it holes is the maintenance of a firm rule. It recognizes the kings as 10 more han a servant of the state. Its rmises the relation of the King with the subjects- "in the happiness of his people lies the happiness of the king in their well-being his well being; his own pleasure is not the king's well-being, but the pleasure of his people is his well-being" Culturall there can be no nobler ideal and oath than that which the rulers had to declare at the time of coronation as stated in the Aitareya Brahmana of pre-Buddhistic age; "If I (king) oppress you subjects let me be deprived of fruits of my all good actions during my life time, during next life, and of my descendants.*** The ecclesiastial administration concerning the temple which is discussed in a later section dealing with basic arts will make it further clear beyond doubt by epigraph.cal and monumental records that the literary evidences were not unreliable. 1 Compare the remarks quoted from the three autors of Ancient India. 2 Yam cha ratrim ajayeham yim cha pretigni tad ubhayam antaren esht purtam me lokam sukrtam ayuh prajam vrinjitha yadi. te druhyeyamiti (Aitareya Brahmana).