Machinery for General administration

The ministry (mantri-parishad) was the chief executive. In the time of the Mahabharta (11, 85, 6-11) a cabinet of 9 was formed out of a ministry of 37, comprising 4 Brahmans including the prime minister, 8 Kshatriyas, 21 Vaisyas and 3 Sudras. According to Kamandaki (XI, 67) the number of ministers which the king must appoint was twelve. But according to Manu (VII, 54) the number should be seven or eight only. And the king should consult his ministers (Manu, VII, 56) of peace and war, of home affairs (sthana) of revenue, of defence, and of gains by pious gifts, at first separately and then jointly before the final decision is taken. The prime minister should have the full confidence of the king in deliberating important state affairs and in regard to the royal policy (vii 57) relating to six measures (VII. 160) riz, alliance, war marching, halting, dividing the army, and seeking protection. According to the Mahabharta (ii, 5, 43) the knig attended daily the council hall (mantra-griha) for consultation with his ministers individually or collectively. The president of the assembly (sabhadhyaksha) accrding to the same authority (ii, 5, 38) was one of the eighteen chief officers of the state. In the Kautilya Arthasistra (Book I chap. XV, 29) Manu is stated to have recommended a ministry of 12 members, school of Brihaspati suggests 16 ministers, the school of Usanas 20 ministers but Kautilya holds that the ministry "shall consist of as niany members as the needs of the dominiou require".

According to Kautilya (Arthasastra VI) the seven bases of government or elements of sovereignty included the king, ministers territory, fort, treasure, army, and alliance. According to Manu (IX, 294) the seven constituent posts of the Kingdom consisted of the King, his ministers, capital, realm, treasury, army, and allies in order of importance. According to Kautilya (Book VII chap i, 61) the sixfold state policy are stated to be neutrality (asanna), machinary (yana), peace (sandhi), war (vigraha), altrance (samsrya) making peace with one and waging war with the other. The obstacles (lit. thorns) to good government) were truly recognised to be the miracle mongers, coiners, highway men, healers, musicians, and dancers all of whom were despised as thieves in disguise. The privy council or the royal office in the Epic age of which the king was the chief comprised the allies, subordinate Kings, military leaders and priests. These aristocratic nobles took part in council, conducted the assemblies, and led the army. They were divided into eight classes as Mantri or cabinet councillors, Amatya or general officers eight of whom might form the King's cabinet as stated in the Mahabharata (i, 140, 2) Sachiva or officers of high rank who were in charge of King's military duties (Mbl i, 49, 23) Parishad or assembly members who also guarded the realm, Sahayas or allies (vii 53, 22 57, 23), Arthak rin or executive officers in charge of state business, five being in the cabinet (xii, 63, 22; 57, 28). Dharmika or judges (Mabh. xii, 121, 46; Ramayana vi, 3, 13), and the Tirthas or departmental heads (Mbh. 11, 5, 38 Kam. II, 160 45) These departmental heads were twenty one in number as stated in the Mahabharata (II, 5,35) and the Ramayana (ii, 109, 45). They included the Mantrin or chief councillor, Turohita or chief priest, Yuvaraja or crown prince, chamupati or Commander-in-chief of the army, Dvarapala or chamberlain, Antarveska or comptroller of house hold, Krigaridhikara or superintendent of prison, Dravya-sanchaya-krit or steward, Artha viniyojaka or chief executive officer, pradeshta or chief judge Nagradhyakshaka or city magistrate, Karyanirmainakrit or chief engineer, Dharmadhyakashaka or chief justice, Sabdadhyakshaka or speaker of the council or assembly, Dandapala or chief criminal judge,

Durgapala or keeper of forts, Rashtrantapalaka or frontier guard, Atavipalaka or conservator cf forests, Vainayika or registrar or officer in charge of rules and discipline, Vyavahirika or legal advi-er, Aupayika or finance member (Mbk. V, 4,34) This will indicate a well organised administration in the age of the epics (B. C. 1000 to A. D 500). The superintendents under the departmental heads as given by Kautilya (Artha-istra Book II, Chap. 1-xxxiii) will further show the care taken in the civil adn inistration in order to develop the economic life of the nation. Thus there were superintendents of accounts; treasury; mines metals, coins and mints; ocean mines and of salt; gold; store house; commerce forest produce; armoury; weights and measure; tolls; weaving; agriculture; liaquor; slauhter house; prostitutes; ships; cows; horse; elephant chariots; infantry; pass ports, pasture lands; and the city superintendents of a hundred or of a thousand communities regulated the subsistence wages and profits. ; In all administrative matters the king is advised by Kautilya (Book I chap xv 27) to have the benefit of cosultation with all his officers. 'The King shall despise none but have the opinions of all because a wiseman makes use of even a child's sensible utterance. Visalaksha is quoted by Manu, who emphasises that 'no deliberation made by a single person will be successful. The nature of the work which a sovereign has to do is ' to be inferred from the consideration of both the visible and invisible causes. Many things are possible of a correct decision by the officers concerned with them, such as ministers, departmental heads, and superintendents of offices. He shall, therefore, set at deliberation with persons of wide intellect (and of large experience) possessing direct knowledge. The Political life of a nation is judged not only by the organisation of the forms and machinery of the government but mainly by the administration of the royal revenues, civil, military and ecclesiastical matters. The principle of taxation is laid down by Manu (vii, 137-139): The King should not cut up his own root by levying no taxes, nor the root of the subjects by excessive greed or exploitation". It is further elucidated (vii, 80) that the revenue official must obey the sacred law in his transactions with the people and behave like a father. The taxes were laid on the basis

of a part of produce from the agricultural or forest lands, mannual labour, and in money. The revenue was derived from two main sources, viz., the rent for leasing out or selling crown lands, and the taxes for various kinds imposed on the members of the state with or without their previous consent. The head of the village or a state official sets aside a part of the different kinds of agricultural produce for the king, the proportion varying between a twelfth and a sixth. A trifle tax was annually taken from those who lived on traffic and annual labour of one day in each month was taken from the mechanics, artisans, and sutra or labourers. (Manu vii, 139) in order to perform gratuitous labour in the construction of public roads, tanks, temples etc. Kautilya (Arthasastra) classifies the aya-mukha or sources of all revenues into bhiga or royal share or title, Flripta or fixed taxes, mula or or capital out-lay, vyaji or premia, parigha or gate-money or custom, rapika or coinage fee or excise duty, and atyaya fines. Custom duties or tolls were levied on internal and external merchandise, that is, on goods manufactured in the country (abhyantara) and in foreign lands (bahya) on their export (nishkrimya) and import (pravesya) as stated by Kautilya For land revenue the kingdom was divided into four groups riz. pariharaka or village exempted from taxation, ayudhiya or villages that supplied soldiers, village that suppliel free labour for public roads or buildings (vishi) and dairy produce (Kara-pratikara), and villages that gave taxes in grains, cattle, and gold (hiranya) and raw materials (Kupya). Royal revenues were also collected from interior (durga). Country parts (rashtra) other than the above villages mines (Khani) buildings and gardens (sen), forests (vana), herds of cattle (vraja) and roads of traffic or road cess from traders (vanik-patha). Durga or interior taxes incluled tolls, fires (registration of) weights and measures, through town clarks and superintendents of coinage, seals, and pass-ports, liquor, slaughter of animals, (manufacture of) threads, oils, ghee, sugar, through state-goldsmith, ware house of merchandise, from prostitutes, gambling, (leasing) building sites, from the corporation of artisans, handicraftsmen, Superintendents of gods or temples and gate tax includ-

life and INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY 121 ing entertainment tax and entrance fee for foreigners (bihiraka). Rashtra meaning realm or parts of the kingdom outside the interior (durga) supplied taxes on the produce from crown lands, tithe, tributes on share of offerings (bali) made to the temples, from merchants, superinten. dents of fishery, ferries, boats, ships, towns (markets), pasture-grounds road-cess, and ropes to bind thief with probably implying manufacture of non-military weapons. Khani or mines were a special source of taxation wherefrem were brought out through processes of minerology by private enterprise gold, silver, diamond, gems, pearls, corals, coachshells, iron, salt and other minerals. Setu or special grounds separated from ordinary corn--fields, another special source of taxation, included flower gardens (as in Holland of present day), fruit-gardens, vegetable gardens, and wet-fields, etc. These were also developed on a large business scale by farmers through private enterprise. Vana or forests were also developed as implied by their division for the purpose of taxation into timber-forests, game forests, and elephant forests. Minerals are not included in this category as they were tapped in places other than deep forests which yielded more notably timber, game comprising birds and animals, and wild animals like elephants who helped the development of economic life in the past. Vraja or cattle breeding was another source of taxation which was also develope by private enterprise which had to pay the royal share of income Like farmers of various things, there were breeders of domesticated animals including cows, buffaloes, goais, sheep, asses, camels, horses and mules, which supplied both milk and flesh, and also draught animals for transport contributing largely to the economic developu ent of the country. Vanik-patha or traffic routes included both land roads and water-ways. The traffic of goods by the land and water must have been in a large scale in Kautilya's time, for otherwise, it could not form a special item of royal taxation. And in order to make it possible the traffic business must have been carried through both private and state enterprise. 16

For the purpose of equitable taxation it is elaborated by Kautilya (Book II, chap xxxv, 142), that the boundaries of villages were set up, and the numbering was done of plots of grounds as cultivated, uncultivated, plains, wet lands, gardens, fences or roads (vata), forests, altars, temples of gids, irrigation works, cremation grounds, feeding or alms houses satha), watering places, (prapa), places of pilgrimage, and pasture grounds. This was necessary for remission of taxes for charitable and public institution. The houses were also numbered as tax paying or non-tax paying The total number of the inhabitants of all the four castes in a village were registered and an account was kept of the exact number of cultivators, cow-herds, merchants, artisans, labourers, and slaves and quadruped animals. An account was also kept of the number of young and cld men that resided in each house, their history of conduct and character (charitra), occupation (ajiva) income (aya) and expenditure (vyaya). Importance of such a census can har ly be exaggerated. It not only helped a judicious allocation of taxes but also supplied necessary particulars to study and improve the condition of the people. Concerning the foreign merchandise arriving by land or water route an account was kept concerning the amount of toll, roal-cess, conveyance-cess, military cess, ferry fare, charges in curred by them for their own subsistence and for the acconnoiain of their merchandise in ware houses (panyig ra. The rate of taxes under various heads are well illustrated by Kautilya (Book V, chap. ii, 241). Demand was made up to one fourth of cultivators' grain and one-sixth of forest produce and of such commodities as cotton, ware, fabrics, barks of trees, hemps, wol, silk, medicines, sandals, flower, fruits, vegetables, firewood; bamboos, flesh and dried fish; one half of all ivory and skins of animals. These are the taxes l-vied in a share of the proluce. Taxes were also taken in mey. Thus the merchants dealing in gold, silver, diamenis, precious stones, pearls, coral, horses and elephants had to pay fifty karas being equivalent to 10 paras. Those who traded in cotton threads clothes, copper, brass, bronze (sandal, medicines) and liquor paid forty karas. Those who traded in grains, liquids, metals, (loha) and dealt with carts had to pay thirty aras Those who

carried on their trade in glass kacha) and also artisans of fine workmanship paid twenty karas. Traders on articles of inferior workmanship and those who kept prostitutes had to pay ten karas. Those who traded in firewood bamboos, stones, earthen pots, cooked rice and vegetables (i.e. the hotel-keeper) paid five karas. Dramatists and prostitutes had to pay as much as half of their wages. Fraudulent racers like the goldsmiths had to pay their entire income. Traders rearing cocks and pigs had to pay as taxes half of the stock of their animals. Those who reared inferior animals ha to pay one-sixth. Those who kept the domesticate animals of public use like cows, buffaloes. mules, asses, and camels paid only one-tenth of their live-stock as royal taxes. Those who of their own accord with intention of doing good for the public offered their wealth as voluntary subscription to the king were honoured with a rank in the king's cours, an umbrella, a turban, or some ornaments in return for their gold Taxes were also entirely remitted. Those who performed sacrfices (ititviks), spiritual guides, preceptors. priests, and those learne in the Vedas were granted free (Brahmacharya, lands yielding sufficient produce, and were exempted from taxes and fines (Book II, chap. i, 46). All other learned men, orators, charitable and brave persons were also encouraged with gifts of land and money, and with the remission of taxes (Book XIII, chap. v. 407). Partial or temporary remission of taxes was made in case of construction of new tanks, lakes, etc., for five years, and for four years for repairing such works of public utility, and for three years for improving or extending water works. Land taxes for such works were remitted for two years in connection with the purchase or mortgage of such lands. "Out of crops grown by irrigation by means of wind mills or bullocks, or below tanks, in fields, parks, flower-gardens or in any other way only so much of the produce as would not entail hardship on the cultivators might be given to the government" i ersons who are permitted to enjoy such lands free of rent of any kind were, however, required to keep the tanks etc., in good repair. The king's establishment charges for maintaining his servants, as stated by Kautilya (Book V, chap. iii, 245) were fixed at unier one-fourth of the total revenue. But the king had to look to the bodily comforts of his

servants by providing such emoluments as can infuse in them the spirit of enthusiasm to work and prevent the violation of the course of righteousness. Thus the emoluments were enough to meet the necessities of living and position, and prevent unfair means of earning. Thus 4800) pay is the highest pay, was fixed for the prime-minister who performed the duties of the State, the adviser and priest, the commander-in-chief of the army, the heir-apparent to the throne, the queen mother or dowager and the chief queen The door keeper, the superintendent of the harem, chief legislato: or law officer (Prasastri), the collector general of revenue received 24000 papas each. The princes other than the crown prince, the governess of the prince, the chief police officer (Nayaka, the city n agistrate, the chief officer in charge of cominerce, the Superintendent of factories (Karmantika), members of the council of ministers other than the chief minister, the surveyer general in charge of courtry parts and boundaries received 12,000 paras cach. The chief's of military corporation, elephants, horses, chariots, infantry, and the commissioners of a division (Prades;ara) received 8,000 paras each. The superintendents of infantry, cavalry, chariots, elephants and the guards of timber forest and elephant forest received 4,00 panas each. The chariot drivers, the physician of the army, the army, the trainer of horses, the state engineer (Bauddhika and those who reared animals received 2000 papas each. The trade soldiers, accountants and writers or clerks received 500 papas each The state musicians got 250 papas, but the trumpet blowers got twice as much. The artisans and carpenters received 120 paras each Servants in charge of the state animals and birds, workmen doing miscellaneous work, attendants upon the royal person, king's body guard and the procurer of free lovers received 60 paras each. A messenger of ordinary qualifications received 10 pa as for each ycjana he travelled and twice as much when he travelled 10 to 100 yojanas. The king's representative at the Rajasuya and the other sacrifices, and the chariots, r of the king in the sacrifices received 1,000 pa-as not as a salary but probably as honorarium Similarly an honorarium of 1000 panas was given to the play-n ate of the king, the elephant driver, the sorcerer, the spotter of the mines in mountains and all other kinds of temporary attendants, teachers and learned men Similarly the ideal house-holder,

merchant and ascetic, and the temporary spies received 1000 panas each as honorarium. The village servant, inferior spies and mendicant women received 500 paras as honorarium, and lastly the servants assisting the spies received 250 panas. All the royal servants received a special allowance on the occasion of funeral, sickness, and child birth. The sons and wives of those who died while on duty received a subsistence allowance and a pension where it was necessary. These particulars will show that there was an equitable system of salaries, allowances and pensions which were fixed on a sound principle. The amount fixel was computed to be sufficient according to the individual requirement. It kept the people free from discontentment and unfair means of earning. It also ensured loyalty and attachment. Two points, however, remain obscure. What would be the equivalent of one para to the modern coinage is not exactly known, and the period for which various amounts of salaries qucted above was fixed is also a matter of uncertainty. If one papa could be interpreted as being equivalent to ore rupee of the present day then these salaries may be taken, as some scholar think to be, for a year rather than for a month. The particulars of royal revenues quoted above should make it clear that taxes were imposed on all sources of income, land forests, manufacture, agriculture, minerology, industry, cattle breeding, traffic, exports and imports etc. A reasonable part of incon e from all profession went to the state which supplied protection, law and order under which conditions only one can earn any income. There is no reference available to any poll tax or tax on any unproductive adventure like theft. On the other hand the prostitutes and gamblers, etc., were taxed for social good and to prevent encouragement of immoral traffic. The toleration at the same time of gambling and prostitution would imply the individual liberty with which the sovereignty of the state did not interiere. Thus for the means of livelihood for individuals and communities white, spotted and black neans were tolerated to which reference has already been made in the preceding chapter. But so far as the State reverues were concerned there as no such liberty or indulgence in different sources of income On the other hand there

was no restriction laid down by the State on the liberty of one spending his income as he liked except of course on the performance of the fivefold basic daily duties of all house holders which no doubt required a portion of his income. But the state had no such liberty, even the household expenses of the king himself was fixed for which only he could draw from the state treasury, the rest of the revenue had to be spent for the good of the society only. In fact the items of the state expenditure will indicate more clearly the standard of civilization and culture achieved in the political life of the ancient Hindus. Vyaya sarira or the main heads of state expenditure according to Kautilya included at the outset the maintenance of the church, literally the chanting of hymns to gods and ancestors. Although the material progress was never ignored the aim of the state policy in all the Hindu period was the moral uplift and spiritual development The government establishment, although required even for the maintenance of the church, was the next item of royal expenses which were incidental on the maintenance of peace and order by courts of justice, police, public works, etc. Maintenance of a permanent army in an efficient form was the next item of expenditure from the royal revenues. It was necessary to maintain the armoury for the production of weapons and munitions, army store of food and clothes, maintenance of infantry, cavalry, chariots, and elephants. Provisions were also made both for military and civil purposes for maintaining warehouse, raw-materials, factories, labourers, herds of cattle comprising cows, horses etc., fodder, and fire wood. And lastly the expenses were drawn from the revenues for the king's house, modestly called here, kitchen, which inten led to supply the bare necessities necessities for the king and his family. Although the Hindu king Hindu king was never called a public servant his main function was to please, of course by service the subjects as indicated by the chief designation, raja, and fully illustrated by the conduct of the ideal king Ramachandra who renounced the royal throne and consort in order to please the subjects. In fact there is hardly any instance available in the Vedas, Jain and Buddhist scriptures, in the Epics and the Puranas, in the poems and dramas which would go to indicate any extortion exercised by the Hindu kings of the past. Even the

rulers of the Historical period till twelfth century after Christ were free from any accusation of extortion. No one king in the lines of the Sisunigas, Nandas, Mauryas, Andhras, Pallavas, Guptas, Chilukyas, Rashtrakutas, Palas and Senas proved to be anything but the raji or the pleaser of the subjects There were, however, rulers like queen Didda who in Kashmir indulged for a short time. in a reign of terror.