Sacrifices in ancient India

The social and public duties of the householder come under two categories, daily and occasional. They are described under four groups of sacrifices (yajna) in the true sense of the term. The first group of five comprises the Brahma-yajna, Deva-yajna, Pitri-yajna, Manushya-yajna, and Bhotayajna. The first of these is a mere prayer made by the recitation of the Savitri hymn which is designated here by the generic epithet of brahma which means the vedic hymn. The savitri hymn to which one is first initiated at the initiation (upanayana) sacrament and on which one has to meditate during the whole course of the student life is continued to the househo'd life. As has already been explained it provides one with the 1. Adhyapana'n brahma-yajnah pitr-yajnastu tarpanan Homo devo bahir bhuto nri-yajno'tithi-pujanam.

strength of mind which naturally follows from seeking god's mercy to get the enlightening excellent lustre of the all-creating sun god and the power of intelligence and understanding for the successful performance of a house-holder's responsible duties of various kinds. Next to this highest creator, the gods who are the manifestations of the various aspects of the creator are prayed by making the offering of melted butter to the fire, the carrier of oblations. This offering is made jointly by the husband and wife as long as they are alive and able to keep alive the nuptial fire. When one of the couple dies this nuptial fire is used in burning the dead body. The romantic idea of joint daily duty of a married couple can hardly be better demonstrated. The details of this deva-yajna or sacrifices to god are elaborated under the Paka, Havis and Soma sacrifices. The Pitri-Yajnas are the oblations (tarpana) of water and offering of cooked and uncooked food made daily to the manes or spirits of the deceased ancestors. This is an instance of the habit of ancestral worship. One who cannot discharge one's debt to his parents by remembering and invoking them in this manner can hardly think of the creator of everything. In fact the faith in God starts from such practice of parental worship. Besides the performance of the daily oblation significantly called tarpana or the deed which gives. pleasure (to the forefathers) includes various kinds of sraddhas or gifts made to the manes, the priests, and the needy out of sraddha or esteem for the deceased ancestors on the death, daily, monthly, annually, and on special occasions. The details of these sacrifices are elaborated especially under Paka-yajnas The householder is enjoined, as a purification, 1 to perform the funeral ceremony of the parents and family members. The antyeshti (lit. the last sacrifice) is performed at the time of burning the dead body. Thereafter until the period of funeral impurities (asaucha is over on the tenth day after death in case of Brahmanas, the fifteenth day in case of Kshatriyas, the twentieth day in case of Vaisyas, and the thirtieth 1. The funeral rites are not reckoned as sacrament by the school of Gaut ma

The day in case of sudras, a daily oblation is made. process consists in an offering from bamboo vessels which are kept standing in a river or a pond close to the funeral pyre and filled with milk and water. Along with this daily oblation offering is also made to the spirit of the dead (preta) of sanctified rice-balls known as paraka pinda (food that fills up). This is aimed at joining up (puraka) a sort of limbs like the arms, legs, head, etc., to the limibless and floating (vayubhuta) spirit in order to transform it into a mane or father (pitri). Until the disintegrated spirit assumes the position of mane it is not entitled to share the offerings made periodically and on special occasions to the forefathers. Those for whom these funeral ceremonies (antyeshti) are not duly performed remain as floating and evil spirits (preta) and haunt the blood relations (sapindas) whose duty and privilege are to give shelter to the dead and inherit his earthly property in return. Thus the funeral rite "feeds the ghost and prevents it from dying again or dissolving. The physical continuity of the soul after the death and decay of the body is maintained in this way in Hindu belief. " a After this antyeshti the first regular service (sraddha) done for the dead is known as ekoddishta which takes place on the eleventh day in case of Brahmanas, sixteenth day in case of Kshattriyas, twenty-first duy in case of Vaisyas, and thirty-first day in case sudras. During the first year after death similar services are performed at the interval of a fortnight (pakshika sraddha) or a month (masika- sraddha), or two months (dvai-misika) or three months (traimasika). At the end of the first year special service is performed which is known as sapintikarana (joining up the spirits). Until this is performed an individual spirit cannot enter into the family of the blood relations (sapinda) of the manes (pitri). This family group of manes is entitled to share the service made to any member by the relations left behind. These services are funeral rites proper. Thereafter annual services (vatsarika sraddha) are performed on the anniversary of the death. As a year of the mortal is equal to a day of the immortal, the spirits get the daily offerings in this way. These special occasional services are of two varieties. The parvana-sraddhas are performed at the time of parvana or special occasion such as pilgrimage, eclipse

etc. The other group is known as kimya (desired), abhyudayika (prosperous) and vriddhi (progressive) and are performed on the occasion of some joyous ceremony such as marriage and post-natal sacraments. The invocation of the ancestors along with prayers for god's mercy imply a noble state of cultural belief and a civilized form of gratitude to those who do not formally make demand for the discharge of one's debt. The fourth of the householder's daily sacrifice is known as Manusha-yajna (charity towards human beings). This is the daily hospitality to be shown to guests other than the relations who form the joint family. These guests are generally Brahmana travellers. (parivrajaka), Buddhist monks (sramanas), Jaina mendicants (ajivikas) and such other religion-seekers and helpless beggars who do not earn for their own maintenance. Thus the individual families of house-holders served as a sort of alms houses and charitable homes and relieved the state of the responsibility of making separate provision for such people. It is emphasised that all the four asramas (students, householders, retired people and mendicants) could exist because of these daily sacrifices of the householders; they are like air without which no creature can sustain life.¹ No easier solution of the problem of feeding the un-earning people can be thought of. The institution of dharmasala (charitable homes) appears to have grown out of foreign imitation by the well-to-do people. But this does not exonerate the house-holder, rich or poor, from the duty of showing hospitality to mankind as a daily routine work. Thus at the Paka, Havis and Soma sacrifices the feeding of the invited and uninvited guests and hospitality towards mankind is invariably an essential function of which further details will be found under those sacrifices. The last of the great five sacrifices is known as Bhuta-yajna (charity towards animals, birds, and insects). The object is to offer food daily to all created beings including cows, bulls, tame birds, ants and insects." 1. Yathi vayu sameritya vartante sarve jantavah. Tatha grihastham asritya vartante sarve asramah. 2. These five sacrifices Brahna, Deva, Pitri, Manushya, and Bhuta are otherwise known respectively as Ahuta, Huta, Prahuta, Brahma huta and Prasita (Manu, III. 73); elsewhere they are called Vaisvadeva, Homa, Balikarman, Nitya_sraddha, and Atithi_bhojana,

Along with all the Paka, Havis and Soma sacrifices this function is also observed. The house-holder is expected to respect life wherever it may be and to assist in the continuance of god's creation. The philosophical idea involved in this custom is praiseworthy. But it does not offer any solution of the problem that the stronger life lives on the weaker ones. If the life in animals, birds, and insects has to be respected why the life in plants and vegetation on which even the vegetarian have to live should be neglected. The scientists have shown that plants have not only life but also sensation like the animals. The system, however, seems to provide an easy means to avoid cruelty to animals. It indicates the natural compassion of a cultured mind and the generous act of the civilized people. There are three other sets of sacrifices (yajnas) included in the lists quoted above, which are performed by the householder periodically and on special occasions. According to the school of Gautama, Angirasa, and Asvaliyana the first group, known as Paka yajna comprise seven varieties. The other two sets, namely, Havir-yajnas and Soma-yajnas, are excluded by the two later schools but are included in the list by Gautama and described under seven varieties each. The Pakayajnas are properly the offering of the cooked (paka) food to the manes and as such would be an extension or elaboration of pitri-yajna which is one of the five great daily sacrifices prescribed for the house-holder. The Havir-yajnas are the offering of melted butter (havis) to the fire for the gods. As such it would be an elaboration of the deva-yajna which is also one of the five great sacrifices performed by the house-holder daily as a compulsory duty. The Soma-yajnas are the great festivities to be held by the rich people only, once or twice and not more than thrice during the whole of the house-holders' career of twenty-five years. At this festivity intoxicant juice of soma plant, which is a kind of wine, was freely offered and drunk both by the Paraiskara (Grihyasutra, VI, 1, 4, 1) explains huta as the sacrifice in the morning and evening, ahuta as pilgrimage to holy places, prahuta as feeding birds of sacrified food, and prasita as feeding Brahmanas, Asvelavana, G. S II, 3) explains huta as parvana sraddha, prahuta as recitation of vedas, brahmahuta as feeding of the guest.

invited guests and the uninvited visitors. The giving of alms and feeding of the poor and the lower being forms part of all the sacrifices. Thus the Manushayajua and Bhuta-yajnas are more elaborately performed along with the Paka, Havis, and Soma sacrifices. Paka-yanas or offerings not only of cooked (pika) food, but also of husked rice, cakes, etc. as well as clarified butter and even flesh are sacrificed to the fire.' These are offered both to the manes (pitti) as well as to the gods (deva). The seven varieties of this sacrifice are konwn as Sraddha or pindadana. The Ashtaka which is performed on the eighth day of the black fortnight of the months of Pausha (January and February), Magha (February-March) and Phalguna (March-April) Parvana at every full and new moon day: Sravani at the full moon of Sravana (July and August) and the offerings specially made to snakes which become prevalent at that time, and also to the fire (agni); Asvayuji on the full moon day of Asvina (September and October); herein offerings of cooked food are made to god Siva under the nanies Paspupati, Siva, Sankara and Pristaka; Agrahiyani or Nava-yajna on the full moon day of the month of the year, Marga sirsha (November-December); herein offerings of milk and new rice is made to the gods Indra, Agni and others; and chaitri on the full moon day of chaitra (March-April); herein offerings are made to the god Vishan, Brahmanas and relations (sapindas) are specially fed on this occasion.2 Three more sacrifices are added to this list which are known as sita for offerings to the ploughed furrow (sita); Indra on full moon day of Bhadrapada (August and September) is specially invoked: Sulagava or Isanabali on the full moon of Marga-sirsha (November and December) wherein the flesh of ox (gava) and cooked rice are offered to the god Isana (Siva) 3 1. The fire is collectively known as grhya because the house. holder kindled it at the time of marriage at the bride's house and transferred permanently to his own house for his daily sacrifice. The four varieties of this agni (fire) known as avasthya (estab. lished,) aupasana (for prayer), and laukika (customary) or smaria (traditional. 2. Gautama VIII, 19 Av. 1; Para 11, 14; Gobbil, III, 1, 1.23; Sank. iv. 15 ; Bhar 11, 1; Ap. XVIII, 5.12. 3. Vaik iv, 3, Gobh, 1 V, 4, 27: Para. II 5, Baudhayana G. sutra 11, 7,

The first group of the seven or ten Paka sacrifices is of special importance to the householder and is invariably performed by all Hindus even at present. Another reason for its performance is that the succession to ancestral property depends on the performance of the occasional service (sraddha) to the forefathers. These services (sraddha) rather than sacrifices are described under two sets known significantly as Asrumukha (mourning) on the sad occasion of death as well as periodically and Nandi mukha (rejoicing) on the happy occasion of marriage, first feeding of the child (annaprasana) and initiation (upanayana), etc. The first of mourning services (raddha) is known as anyeshti or the last service performed at the time of burning the dead body. The second known as ekoddishta is performed after a period of mourning or the funeral impurities lasting ten days for Brahmanas, fourteen for Kshatriyas, twenty for Vaisyas, and thirty for Sadras. The third is called masika (monthly) because it is performed on the day of death every month for the first year only. The fourth funeral service is known as sapindikarana which is performed on the first anniversary of the death in order to bring to the family of the manes (pitti) the spirit of the one who died a year ago; without this one has to remain excommunicated. These funeral rites "feed the ghost and prevents it. from dying again or dissolving. The offerings made secure for the dead non-redeath (amrita)". Thus for the "cult to be kept un for ever" the fifth variety known as Vatsarika sraddha or annual service is performed on the anniversary of death. For this essential work a male descendant is necessary for all Hindu fathers. Thus in the absence of a naturally born son the Hindu father was provided to have one of the thirteen or fourteen kinds of male descendants as specified above. The rejoicing services (nandimukha) are variously called as kamya (invoking blessings of ancestors) abhyudayika (for prosperity), and vriddhi (for progress). For achieving success (kima) in household life for instance the Kamya service may fittingly be performed at the time of the marriage. Similarly for the progress 6

of the child the Vriddhi service may be performed at the time of the first feeding (annaprasana) of the child. And at the commencement of the student career the Abhyudayika service may be preformned. All these services, it should be noted, are preformed by the parents of the bride and bridegroom, the husband of the bride, and the father of the child to be fed or educated. That is, the persons for whose benefit the ancestors are invoked do not perform not perform these services themselves. 2 is Havir-yajnas are offerings consisting of clarified butter, milk, grain, liquor and flesh collectively called havis; they are made to the fire' for the gods. These sacrifices are, thus, the elaboration of Deva-yajna mentioned along with the five daily sacrifices (panchamahayajnas). But they have three aspects which are classified under three categories. It is Ishti when the sacrifice is preformed jointly by the householder and his wife together with four priests for good (ishti) of the family. It is Pasu when an animal (pasu) sacrificed; and Soma when the offerings consist chiefly in liquor (soma). There are seven varieties of the Havir-yajnas. The first one is known as Agnyadheya which consists in establishing of the three sacred fires and takes two to three days in collecting the fire wood (arani), kindling the fire by rubbing, and establishing the fires and finally making the offerings to the gods for the good (ishti) of the family. The second is known as Agnihotra which the householder and his wife has to perform daily twice, in the morning and evening, by making offerings to the fire already permanently established. The third is called Darsa-purnamaa as it is performed at the new moon (darsa) and the full moon (purna-misa). Offerings of cake (purodasa) are made to Angi and Soma, and also known as Pinda-pitri because on those occasions offerings of powdered rice ball (pinda) are made to the manes (pitri); it covers two days for the purformance of the chief function and the minor rites of feeding Brahmanas etc. This is thus the elaboration of the Pitti-yajna of the Pancha-maha-yajna group. 1 2. The fire is known as Garhapatya, Ahavaniya and Dakshina. Adhvaryu, Agnidhara, Hotri, and Brahmi. 3. The authorities do not include this under Ishti, Pasu or Soma, as is considered a compulsory daly duty. But it may be considered an ishti without the assistance of the extra priest.

The fourth is known as Chaturmasya because it is performed at the fourth month on the full moon day of Phalguna (February & March), Ashadha (June & July), and Kartika (Oct.-Nov.). At this sacrifice special offering of purodisa or cake (baked on eight potsherds) is made to the firegod Agni, of charu or milk rice to the plant god Soma, of cake (baked on twelve potsherds) to the Sun god Savitri, of milk-rice to the goddess of speech, Sarasvati, and of ground rice to the god of cultivation, Pushan. This is of the ishti type. It can also be of Pasu and Soma type when flesh and wine form the special offerings. The fifth is known as Agrahayana as it is performed at the commencement of the summer solstice (21 st. June) and winter solstice (21 st. December) with the seasonal rice, barley and fruits, etc. It is ishti as it is done for the good of the family at these periods. The sixth is known as the Pasu-bandha because at this sacrifice an animal (pasu), generally a goat, is killed, either at the sacrificial site (agni-somiya) or outside (nirudha). The offerings of flesh is specially made by six priests to the gods Agni, Soma and others. It is performed at the new and the full moon once or twice a year. The seventh is known as Sautramani. Herein also the offerings of milk, rice, etc., and flesh (pasu), wine (sura) are made to the gods, Asvinau, Indra, and Sarasvati by the six priests. Thus it also covers the three aspects of ishti, pasu, and soma. As many as five animals are killed at Soma form of this sacrifice. Soma-yajnas are great festivities, so called, because the distinctive feature was the distribution of wine (soma) to the visitors. The other common features are the sacrifice of animals, chanting of musical hymns, and saying of prayers in chorus. These are performed at the end of the year (Manu, iv. 22) but not more than thrice in one's lifetime. These are forbidden for those who are not rich enough. It is expressly laid down (Manu XI, 7.10) that "he who may possess a supply of food sufficient to maintain those dependant on him during three years or more than that is worthy to drink (distribute) the soma juice. But a twice born' who 1 It is only Brahmanas especially the Kshatriyas who can perform these costly sacrifices of which the Rajasuya and Asvamedha are limited only to the kings.

nevertheless drinks the soma juice does not derive any benefit from that act. If an opulent man is liberal towards strangers, while his family lives in distress, that counterfeit virtue will first make him taste the sweets of fame, but afterwards make him swallow the poison (of punishment in hell). If a man does anything for the sake of his happiness in another world, to the detriment of those whom he is bound to maintain, that produces evil results for him, both while he lives and when he is dead." The Devayajna of the Pascha-mahayajna group is elaborated here. It has seven usual varieties and two or three special ones. The first one is known as Agnishtoma because the firegod (Agni) is specially invoked. In it sixteen priests officiate, one animal is killed, twelve chants and twelve invocations (stoma, praise) are made. The second one is known as Atyagnishtoma because in it one addition (ati) is made to every item excepting the priests. Thus there are thirteen chants, thirteen invocations and three animals are killed, and there are usual sixteen priests. The third one is known as Ukthya because invocation or praise (uktha) of the god Agni is emphasised here. In it also sixteen priests take part, two animals are killed, fifteen chants and fifteen invocations are made. The fourth one is known as Shodasin because the sixteen (shodasa) priests, sixteen chants and sixteen invocations are emphasised here. In it three animals are killed. It lasts for a day The fifth one is called Vajapeya because its purpose is to demonstrate one's strength (vajas). Here also the sixteen usual priests officiate. There are seventeen chants, seventeen invocations and sacrifice of seventeen animals for the god Prajapati (creator). It also lasts for seventeen days. And seventeen cups of wine (soma) are given to each guest. It is performed in autumn by a Brahmana or Kshatriya for overlordship. The sixth one is called Atiratra because it ends at late at night (atiratra), generally at the dead of night, thus covering a day and night. In it the sixteen priests make twenty-nine chants, twenty-nine invocations and kill four animals of which the fourth is a sheep. The seventh is known as Aptoryama which may emphasise a whole day and night festivity for the purpose

of gaining (apta) one's desired name and fame. Thus it is otherwise known as Jyotishioma because the invocation (stoma) is made here for one's glory (jyotis). In it the sixteen priests make thirty-three chants, thirty-three invocation and kill four animals. According to certain authorities the gradually increasing figures, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 29, and 33 also imply that each, guest was presented with gold, cloth, ring, seat, etc., each item numbering as many as these figures imply. In all these festivities visitors were entertained sumptuously with food and drink. In addition to these seven soma sacrifices there are at least two more great and special sacrifices combining ishti, pasu and soma. They were performed by the great Ashatriya kings Raasuya is the great sacrifice which was performed at the coronation of a king. It extends over two years and commences in spring. The ordinary offerings, killing of animals, and distribution of wine (soma) are the usual function. The primary object is to celebrate one's paramount power. The subordinate kings who have been conquered have to present themselves and make presents and homage by way of showing their subordination. The ordinary festivities like dice-playing, eating, drinking, etc, are observed. Presents are also made to the priests and guests. Asvamedha or the horse sacrifice is the most celebrated one. It also commences in spring and lasts for a year. It also combines ishi offerings, fles (pasu) and wine (soma). Its main object is to establish suzerainty over the conquered and formally uncouquered kings. A horse was let loose followed by an army to wander about for a year and whoever did not acknowledge the suzerainty had to opose the horse and fight the army. until defeated. This particular horse wat sometimes not immolated but kept bound during the ceremony. In latter times its efficacy was so exaggerated that a hundred such sacrifices entitled the sacrificer to displace Indra (king of gods) from the dominion of svarga (heaven). Kings who engaged in it had to spend enormous sums in gifts to the Brihmanas and guests'. l 'For further details of P k³. Havis and Soma sacrifices see the Srauta sutras of Katyayana, Asvalayana, Baudhayana, Apastamba, Gautama, Sankhyayana and Gobhila, and the Aitareya Brahmana.

he luxuries involved in all these soma sacrifices are further indicated by a conimon ceremony known as agni-chayana (gathering of sacrificial fires). It refers to the construction of fire-altars. This construction of the altars seems to have been based on sound scientific principles and was probably the beginning of the sikhara (spherical dome) of the later Hindu temples Of the five fold daily offerings of a householder three (Brahma, Deva, Pitri) refer to the supernatural forms of life and two (man and lower creatures) to the forms of life which we can see with our eyes. The reality of the former of these two groups of life can be understood by ordinary intellect through a process of reasoning. 'They fall out of the horizon of human knowledge when the men of modern science and philosophy reveal the whole life and existence with their telescopes, microscopes and other apparatus'. But in India of the past they have been known 'to the inner intelligence, perceived by the super sense developed by subtilization and sublimation of the natural senses'. It appears that this idea was recorded in scriptures elsewhere also as Sir Oliver Lodge records the strange communication of Raymond Madame H. P. Blavatsky of Russia who founded the Theosophical Society also revealed to the world of thinking men 'that the upper layers of the aero etheral sky and the regions. beyond them are all populated by communities of mysterious persons who live on higher planes of consciousness and possess far greater capacities of thought and action and who are not subject to evils and ailments. of miserable living'. The ancient Indian seers, sages and saints knew their superhuman orders of beings and held communication with them, sought their influences and worshipped the beneficial ones among them for power and purification. According to these authorities the divinities, deities and spirits are not imaginary beings. The gods and goddesses we hear and talk of are 'real, veritable, living beings, persons possessing powers of all degrees, individualized forces, natural, supernatural and celestial.' But they have got many differences and distinction among them, of nature, character, position, function, occupation and dwelling. One group is free and divine, being independent of all forces and in perfect harmony with the Highest. Of the other group of divinities one

sub-class 'administer the governments (like executive officer of the god Almighty) of the worlds of nature, of men and animals. The portfolios of Providence responsible for the management of the affairs of the world are held by Indra, Surya (sun), Agni (fire), Varuna (water.god) Kubera (god of wealth), Marut (air) and many others. The Prajapatis (creators or progenitors) including the ten sages like Marichi, Atri, Daksha and others possess the rights and privileges of living in the various heavens though not taking particular parts in the world-administration. The demigods like Gandharvas, Kinnaras and others differing from the Gods in the ways of life and faculties and functions form the celestial artist classes. The Jiva or embodied spirits who are subject to Karma and undergo rebirth form the fourth category and are the presiding and ruling deities of the various kinds of terrestrial, super-terrestrial and sub-terrestrial individual lives." There is a different category of 'preter-natural creatures that are gross, grotesque and grim and even gruesome, known as ghosts and goblins and evil spirits in general that haunt sepulchres, cemeteries and other places, dolorous and dreadful. There are also stated to be realities of disagreeable hyper-physical life forming a dark department of the weird world of nature.' There are many kinds of other rare natural beings 'some of whom as known are fairies, flights of whom are to be found in every country, differing in forms and characteristics of life in different countries as held by the Theosophists.' There are thus 'natural beings of exquisite structural composition including the sylphs that dwell in the atmosphere like invisible birds, the salamanders that live in the flaming fire, the nymphs and naiads that have their homes in brooks and fountains the hamadryads that find their dwellings in insides of trees, the gnomes that move freely in rocky strata of earth.' "The super-human, super-terrestrial, and super sensuous beings are not necessarily super-natuaal. In fact 'the denial of superhuman beings should go side by side 1. Vide Divinities Deities and Spirits, Kalyana Kalpataru, October, 1945, pp. 306. 311.

with the denial of the Divine Being (God). It is untenable to accept the idea of a supreme Deity and to reject the ideas of super-natural forms of lie.' Thus those who believe in the existence of God have to assume the existence of superhuman beings who transcend the human limitation. Upon this faith is founded the whole system of the sacraments, sacrifices, and ritual of the Hindus All our sacramental rites are intimately associated with libations and sacrificial offerings which are made to all superhuman beings including Agni, Vayu; Indra, Varuna; Brahma, Vishou; Siva of later ages; Gandharva, Kinnara; Manes; and even Bhutas and Pretas. Those whose enjoyment is aimed at by the various rites include the spirits not only of one's forefathers of all past ages but also those of others of all lands as well as the gods, sages, saints.' The questions however, arise how do the Manes, for instance, receive in another world the oblation and offerings of rice, etc, made in this world and how do they derive satisfaction from such offerings and suffer privation in the absence of them for which the God rewards and punishes their surviving descendants. Again, in the event of the human soul, which survives the death of the human body, being liberated or being transmigrated into a new being in a new species how the offerings of articles of food, clothes, ornaments, furniture, etc., fit for only human use can benefit the manes or spirits. Any attempt at answering such questions could be only a compilation and elucidation of intelligent and logical direction received from the scriptures wherein, however, a direct explanation is missing. Thus it is stated in the Vishnu-purina II xv, 16) that "whatever food is offered by a man of faith referring to the name 1. Om brahma bhuvan: lok₁ dev.rshi muni manavah Tripyantu pitarals rve mitri mit mahadayali Atita.kula.kotinam sapta_dvipa-nivasinim May dattena toyena tripyantu bhuvana travain Atmidi-stamb-paryantair murtimadbhis charicharaih Nritya giti dyanekarhah prthak rithag unasitah

and patronymics (name and gotra) of the ancestors reaches the latter in the form of food which is appropriate to them. 1 It merely means that there is a sort of exchange bank which converts the sum deposited in this world for the use of those who are in another world. Thus if the departed soul takes re-birth as a goat for instance the offerings of fruits may be converted into grass which the goat requires. On the other hand if the soul is permanently liberated and has become unified with God it requires no further nourishment from its surviving descendants as stated to be the case when the Sraddha (offerings) is performed at Brahma Kapali at Badrinatha and elsewhere which ensures salvation of the forefathers. As, however, it is difficult to be sure of the final liberation of a departed soul it is customary to continue to make the offerings on specified occasions during one's own life time. Like offerings the prayer for salvation of the departed souls also benefit them. "Through the mechanism of the Radio words uttered thousands of miles away are immediately brought to our hearing. Similarly every single action done concerning the departed souls reaches them immediately in the form of eternal waves and brings them pleasure or pain as the case may be. When a powerful government of a ruler in this world can take charge of the gift made by any one for the benefit of his dependant in a distant land where the mode of life is different, there is nothing superstitious or fantastic to think that the all powerful ruler of the universe with a perfect machinery of government cannot properly distribute the gifts we make in the names of various beings which reside in spaces beyond the scope of our limited vision. The same analogy may also enable us to follow the line of argument regard. ing the seemingly unaccountable punishments from the blue sky. If a person fails or neglects to maintain his dependants according to his means the government of the land punishes the defaulter. In the same way it is not unreasonable to think that the all-seeing and Almighty God takes the defaulter to task for the failure of his duties towards his ancestors whose descendance and property one enjoys through inheritance. And it 1 Sraddha-samanvitair dat.tam pitrebhyo nama gotratah. Yad.aharastu te jatas tad aharatvam etitat. 7

also cannot escape the notice of the all pervading God whose ancestors are in need of the offerings from their surviving descendants. Thus no distortion of evidence or pleading can have any effect in the Court of God's perfect justice. Similarly if the plea of ignorance on the part of an individual defaulter proves to be valid the God's penalty is inflicted upon the state whose business it is to educate the members of the society in the spiritual laws formulated in various scriptures by the seers in different civilizations. Any disagreenient or conflict of these laws cannot be accepted as an argument or the reason for not following any system in which one has developed his own faith. According to the faithful the atheist are outlaws and have to face all the miseries in this and the next worlds. The whole Hindu system of culture has developed from the faith in the Almighty and all-active God possessing a perfect machinery of administration. It is also based upon a faith in the migration of the human souls to salvation or rebirth into some other species until the unification with the God is achieved. Thus after a well regulated and perfectly disciplined and fully trained life of Brahmachari one enjoys all possible happiness of householder's life until he reaches the age of retirement in forest by way of preparing for natural renunciation and peaceful death which is inevitable for all living beings. The altars where upon the big sacrifices were performed could be constructed in ten different shapes. The first one is called chaturasra-syena-chit, so called because it resembles the form of a falcon (syena) and the bricks out of which it is composed are all square shaped (chaturasra). The second is kankachit, in the shape of a heron (kanka) which is same as syena-chit except the two additional feet. The third, alaja-chit, is the same as the Syena-chis with the additional wings. The fourth is praugachit which is an equilateral triangle. The fifth is ubhayatah-prauga-chit which is made up of two such triangles joined at their bases. The sixth is ratha-chakra chit which is in the form of a wheel (chakra) a massive wheel without spokes and a wheel with sixteen spokes. The seventh is dropa-chit which is like a vessel or tube (drona) square or circular. The eighth is parichayya-chit which has a circular (parichayya) outline and is equal to the ratha-chakra

15443 chit differing in the arrangement of bricks which are to be placed in six concentric circles. The ninth, samnhya.chit, is circular (samuhya) in shape and made of loose earth and bricks. And the tenth is kurma-chit which resembles a tortoise (kurma) and is of a triangular or circular shape.' Every one of these altars was constructed of five layers of bricks, which together came up to the height of the knee; in some cases ten or fifteen layers, and proportionate increase in the height of the altar were prescribed. Every layer in its turn was to consist of two hundred bricks, so that the whole agni (altar) contained a thousand; the first, third, fifth layers were divided into two hundred parts in exactly the manner; a different division was adopted for the second and the fourh, so that one brick was never laid upon another of the same size and form.²

1. For further details see the writer's Indian Architecture (1927) p. 7-8, and for illustrations his encyclopedia of Hindu Architec ture. Sub-voce and plates enclosed there with. 2 These are first enumerated in the Taittiriya samhita (V. 4. 11). Constructional details are supplied by the salva sutras which are supplements to the Kalp sutra of Baudhiyana and Apastamba. The details of Paka, Havis and Soma sacrifices are gathered from the Srauta sutras of Katy yana, Asvalayana, Baudhayana, A pastmba, Gautama, Sinkh yana, Sinkhiyana, Gobhila and Aitareya Brahmana. and