Ashramas (student-life) in ancient India

- 28 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION ASRAMAS STUDENT-LIFE The career of a student (brahmacharin) is the first of the four stages into which the whole living period of a hundred years is divided. The studentship commences immediately after the upanayana or initiation at the age of eight to twelve years according to the capacity of the child to get the benefit of the residence at a boarding school. The minimum period of study is stated to be twelve years but it may extend to forty-eight years and may cover the whole life. Usually, however, the samavartana or home-returning takes place at about the twenty-fifth year, the next twentyfive years being allotted to the householder's life (garhasthya), the third twenty-five years to the selfless national service (vanaprastha), and the last twenty-five years to the detached renunciation (sannyasa). The ceremonies following the paridana (handing over of the child to the teacher) comprise the namaprichha (asking the name of the child by the teacher by way of an introduction), aditya-darsana (showing the sun by way of an ideal of knowledge which is implied in the Savitri verse), and agni-pradakshina (going together round the sacrificial fire by way of a fellowship). Thereafter commences the teaching proper beginning with the ceremonies of Brahmacharya-upadesa (precepts of student's life), Savitri (teaching of the chief hymn on which the student is to meditate daily), and samidh- adhana (teaching the performance of daily sacrifice by the student himself). Before the precepts are delivered the teacher ties the girdle (mekhala) round the waist of the pupil and hands over the staff (danda) to him. These articles of student's uniform complete the initiation ceremony. Thereafter the teacher addresses the pupil and explains to him the general rules of studentship. The student takes the oath by sipping water and promises 'not to sleep at day time, to remain obedient to the teacher, to study regularly (A, 1, 22, 2; S. 2, 4, 5; P. 2, 3, 2; Ka. 2, 4), to lay firewood on the fire, that is, to perform the daily sacrifice (B. 2, 5, 45; Bh. 1, 9), and to earn his livelihood during the course of his study."¹ 1 The concluding item of the upanayana ceremony consists in begging, after the father has given during the course of the

Further elucidation of the rules of conduct. prescribed by all the leading texts are classified under the Veda-vratas (vows of acquiring knowledge) which, as has already been pointed out, are counted as a separate sacrament by all the three leading schools of Gautama, Angiras and Asvalayana. The Veda-vrata it should be noted, is almost synonymous with Brahmacharya. The vow (vrata) is equavalent to charyi (conduct. And Veda (knowledge) is Brahman (God) when of all knowledge the chief one is to know god. This is considered to be the ultimate aim (purushartha) of all knowledge although the material advantages of gaining knowledge of all sciences and arts were always emphasised by Hindu legislators as will be shown by the courses of study followed and the varieties of litera. ture which still exist. These vows are specified by the school of Gautama under four categories which combine all the general rules of conduct to be observed by a student. The first vow is on the strict observance of celebacy and sexual chastity both in thought and in action. Thus all things that are likely to excite the mind or body are avoided. Although under certain circumstance sports, music and dancing, etc., of boys and girls together at the University stage as shown in the curriculum of the Nalanda University were permitted, it was, however, avoided at the earlier school stage. Anointing including the sue of perfume, powder, lipstick, etc., were similarly prohibited The second vow of simplicity in food and clothes is a further precaution to turn up a really educated and unsophisticated member of the society. Students of all ranks had to put on the same uniform and take the same food. This practice at the most impressionable age generated a sense of equality, fraternity ceremonies all things necessary for a student including clothes, umbrella, shoes, etc. According to most of the texts (e.g A 1, 22, 6) the student begs to meet the cost of his education. Friends and rela. tions also make similar gifts (in money or kind at this ceremony B. 2, 5, 48). Besides the State provides sufficient grants for the maintenance of one teacher homeschools to which the occasional visitors also make liberal grants. Thus only in very exceptional cases the students have to earn their livelihood by professional begging. This initial injunction by the teacher is intended as a safeguard to the teacher.

and independence. So the snobbery resulting in superiority complex was not imbibed from the class-room as is unfortunately the case in our modern system. The third vow of perfect obedience to the teacher used to give rise to another trait of our character whereby a perfect discipline in the society could be maintained. Those who are not properly trained to obey can never learn to rule properly. This obedience, however, is not equivalent to slavery. Free discussion in order to remove difficulties was allowed between the teacher and the pupil. In fact the system of debate nowhere better developed than among the sanskrit scholars. This obedience was intended to avoid the spirit of impertinence. In fact the devoted Hindu students submit to the teacher's view as an authority in itself requiring no further reasoning. The fourth is the chief vow of acquiring knowledge. The process is twofold and includes self exertion and seeking of god's mercy. The prayer falls under two heads, the performance of the daily sacrifice and meditation upon the Savitri hymn. When a log of wood soaked in clarified butter is put into the blazing fire and the flame appears before the eyes the devotee prays thus: "I have thrown a samidh (log of wood) into the jata-vedas (that which creates knowledge, fire) increase with that, Oh Agni (fire, intelligence) as we increase with Brahman (knowledge, God); I smear myself with lustre ; may the fire put intelligence into me, progeny into me, and lustre in me". No higher prayer for a seeker of knowledge is conceivable. The Savitri hymn itself expresses the similar idea in a broader form: "May my powers of understanding be expanded, I pray for that excellent enlightening glory of the all-creating sunGod". In other words the student prays for that kind of light as coming from the sun removes all darkness of the world. The real object of our general education is indeed to acquire through the study of arts or science, or both, the power of understanding and enlightenment in all matters. As has been already pointed out, the first twenty-five years of one's average life of a hundred 1 Savitur varenyo bhargo devasya dhimahi dhiyo yo nah pra. chodayat (Rigved. III, 62, 10)

years are devoted to the education and study. It is laid down in several texts and the custom still continues that the education commences in the sixth year of the child with the ceremony of learning alphabets both in reading and writing with a piece of chalk. This primary education is carried out at home for a period of three or four years. At the age of eight or nine years the child is sent out for the minimum period of twelve years. Thus at the age of about twenty years the secondary education is completed. Thereafter a period of five years is spent at the University for higher study and in acquiring professional skill not only in priestcraft but also in professions like medicine and surgery. Those who intend to prosecute further study and research may continue till the forty-eighth year. But one must marry before the appearance of grey hair generally after the age of forty-eight. Incidentally a brief reference may be made to the courses of study at the primary, secondary, and university stages. Generally after learning the alphabet at home boys were introduced at primary school to Sabdavidya (learning of words) which literally means phonology and implies mainly grammar. The object was to impress at the outset upon the boy's mind "the idea of scientific method, order, principle and system of rule." Through the study of grammar, the inevitable cramming of the rules of grammar, however, might have injured the raw brain and created a distaste for study. But the ancients contrary to the fourth vow of studentship to understand things laid greater importance to memorising than to understanding of all subjects.³ After acquiring the necessary knowledge of language and literature following the study of grammar one had to study the Hetuvidya or logic which develops the reasoning faculty, and Silpavidya or science of arts 1 There appears to have been some 84,000 primary schools at the time of King Asoka (vide Bauddhapitha by S. Barua p. ix). There were big secondary colleges at Bodh Gaya, Sanchi, Bharhut, Sravasti Kausambi, Sarnath, Mathura, Nasika, maravati, Nagarjunikunda, Jagayyaketa, Kanchipura, Kaneripeta, M. dura and other places. There were wellknown universities of Taxila in the north-west Valabhi in Gujarat in the west, Nalandi and Vikramasila in Bihar, and Odantapuri, Jagaddala, Somapuri and Vikramasila in Bengal. 2 Avrittih sarva-sastranam bodh dapi gariyasi.

and crafts which inculcates in students an aesthetic sense and practical skill in construction regarding symmetry, proportion, and beauty. After this general education students were taught some professional and technical subjects like the Ayurveda or chikitsa-vidya (medicine and surgery), astronomy, mathematics, Astravidya (archery) or Dhanurveda (bowmanship), Smritisastras, Arthasistras, etc. The usual number of Vidyas (subjects of learning) were fourteen including the four Vedas (scriptures), angas (sikshi kalpa, nirukta, chhandas, jyotisha and grammar), dharma (rules of conduct) mimasa (cheology), tarka or nyaya (logic) and pur pas (history and mythology). Although theo logy was a compulsory subject even at the university stage the adhyatma vidya (philosophy or science of universal soul for the attainment of the supreme knowledge) could be taken up only by a few specially endowed with necessary inclination and attainments.' 'Physical exercises were included in the carriculam not merely to provide diversion from serious study but with an express object of keeping the body and mind of the scholar fit 2. 1 Mr. H. D. Sankalia in his 'University of Nalndi' has drawn up a time table from the ancient texts. At the primary stage boys learnt alphabets at the age of 6 years, elementary grammar and Siddha composition at 8, sutras of P. nini at 10, books on three Khilas including details of grammar and composition at 13, "laws of the universe and regulations of gods and men" including elementary sciences, history, and mythology at 15, "Composition in verse and prose" at 16, for four years logic, metaphysics, Vedas, Vedingas, at 20 specialization in one of the professional vidys like medicine etc. and at 23 for two years some research work and art of writing and new approach to a subject. a heap trapball; 2 A list of games from the chullavagga (1, 13, 2) has been quoted which includes besides dancing with ladies, "games with eight pieces and ten pieces, tossing up, hopping over diagrams formed on the ground, and removing substance from without shaking the remainder; games of dice and sketching rude figures, tossing balls, blowing trumpets, having matches at ploughing with mimic ploughs, tinkling, farming, mimic windmills, shooting marbles with fingers, guessing measures, having chariot races and archery matches, guessing other people's thoughts and mimicking other people's acts, elephan_triding, horse-riding, carriage driving and swordmanship; to run to and fro in front of horses and in front of carriages, to exhibit signs of anger, to wring hands and to wrestle, and to box with fists; and spreading out robes as a stage and inviting girls saying 'here you may dance, sister and greeting her with applause".

The aim of education was "to unfold the capacities of the student through proper means in order to make his life full of meaning for him as well as for the society". The vows of Brahmacharya laid the foundation of all round education, material, mental and moral. The results of the curriculum are shown by the wide range of extant literature in Sanskrit, Pali, and Prakrit, and an all round progress made by the Hindus in their social, political, and moral life to which references are made in the following chapters. The Samavartana (home-return) is considered as a separate sacrament. The only ceremony referred to is, however, merely a bath. It corresponds to the present day convocation ceremony. But the bath seems to provide an opportunity for pilgrimage or sight-seeing which aims at offering an opportunity to gain an experience of men and things Thus well equipped the students return home and marry at their own responsibility as is clearly shown by the forms of marriage referred to above. Household life in ancestral home. The second Asrama or period of life covering the age from twenty-six to fifty years is known as Girhasthya (householder's life) It commences with the marriage shortly after the home-return (samavartana) after the completion of study and travel as pointed out above. The young graduate marries according to his own choice. The four normal forms of marriage, as already explained, satisfy the ideal and requirements of the bachelors of all inclination which must have developed during the course of their study and travel. Whichever formspiritual (brahma), divine (daiva), sagely (arsha) or human (manusha) - one chooses in getting a partner of his household life, he is required to perform jointly with his wife certain periodical social and public duties in addition to the private and personal duties towards husband and wife and towards the children. The duties other than the personal ones are significantly called 1. For further elucidation see the writers' article 'universities of India' Allahabad University Studies 1935-6, pp. 51-61, Twentieth century, July, 1935, Modern Review, August 1935, pp. 209-210). 2. See Para I, p. 28. 5

sacrifices (yajnas) of various kinds. Those which are performed in a small scale as a daily routine are known as five common (bit great) sacrifices; the other done occasionally are known as paka, parvana, Havis and Soma. On the basis of the special objects of offering the sncrifices are classified as Anna-yajna, Soma-yajna and Pasu-yajna where the chief objects of offering are respectively grains (anna), wine (soma) and flesh (pasu). Thus the combined duties of Householder are the sacraments and the sacrifices. The parental duties towards the children have been elaborated under the pre-natal and post-natal sacraments commencing with the conception (garbhadhiana) and ending at the initiation (upanayana). The other conjugal duties are elaborated under the marriage ceremonies (vivaha). The members of the family for whose maintenance, comfort and convenience the head of the family is responsible include, in addition to the wife and children as Kautilya has specified (Arthasastra Book II, Chap. I, 48) mother, father, minor brothers, unmarried sisters, widowed and helpless girls. The wives and children of the helpless brother and sisters as also servants are considered as members of a joint family. The conditions of living in a joint families are fourfold. The members of these several family forming one joint family are required to live in the same abode or premises, to partake of the food cooked in the same kitchen, to share the common property and to profess the same faith and religion. On behalf of the members the head of the family accepts and despatches invitation, conducts law-suits, and performs all other duties of a solicitor. He has to be obeyed by all the members and in return for that he must be strictly impartial. He is compelled to resign if he fails in his duties and obligations. Similarly an undesirable member may be turned out of the family. His wife acts on his behalf in looking after the female members and household duties. The head of the family is also the owner of the family property. But the individual members can possess not only cattle, weapons and jewels, but even land. Each father forming the joint family has the right to distribute his goods among his children, and land in particular may be distributed differently in successive generations. The growth of the apparently cumbrous system of a combination of several families families was

necessitated by the exigency of the Aryan migration and settlement in India. The mutual safety and security of the early settlers were well provided by the asseniblage of a number of homogeneous families with a clear understanding and advantages. The benefits of living in a large famiy include the safety and security of all the members. For the good of a single member the whole family fights against an enemy, a disease or disability. This system further generated the habit of accommodating oneself for the the common weal and peacefully gave rise to the benevolent monarchical system in the field of economics, politics and religion. The system of joint family indicates clearly the germ of the individual liberty under the sovereignty of the head of a state, which is the chief aim of the modern civilized form of government. The generous cultural condition of the mind is also clearly indicated by this system. The smaller selfishness, not exactly of the primitive type, involved in the system of single family consisting of husband, wife and unmarried children, began to make its appearance along with the expansion of the society and the firmly established system of government and mostly in imitation of the foreign custom with certain obvious advantages of personal enjoyment of a couple.