Glories of India (Culture and Civilization)
by Prasanna Kumar Acharya | 1952 | 182,042 words
This book, “Glories of India on Indian Culture and Civilization”, emphasizes the importance of recognizing distinct cultural traits across different societies. The historical narrative of Indian civilization highlights advancements in agriculture, medicine, science, and arts, tracing back to ancient times. The author argues for the need to understa...
Sacraments in ancient India
The sacramental nature of marriage is clear from the nupital ceremonies described above. The other commonest sacraments follow directly from married life. These vary in number but they are observed in all countries and by all civilized races. Baptism of the Christians, circumcision of the Muslims and initiation of the Hindus are well known and imply the same idea of the formal admission of the child to the particular conmunity and the creed. But the Hindu system looks to the pre-natal and post-natal care of the child, its education and settlement to householder's duties after marriage. Thus the system begins with marriage and should end in marriage. Counted from this point of view they are popularly known as dasa-samskaras (ten chief sacraments) and comprise vivaha (marriage), garbhidhana (conception), simantonnayana (parting or up-brushing of hair of wife's head by way of formal announcement of motherhood), pumsavana (special ceremonies to regulate the sex of the child to be born), jatakarman (rites observed on birth to ensure health, long life and good character of the child), nama-karana (naming the child), anna-prasana (first feeding of solid food), chaula-karana (tonsure or first hair cut), upanayana (initiation, lit. sending to school), veda-vratas (vows of learning) otherwise known as brahmacharya (student's career), and samavartana (home-return after completion of study) and settling down to householder's life after marriage (vivaha). The leading schools of legislators do not, however, with regard to the number of sacraments and agree sacrifices. The schools of Gautama. Angirasa and
2 Sacraments and Sacrifices Gautama School Angirasa School Alvalayan School Grihya Sutra Grhya sutra (Kalpasutra) 1. Garbhadhna 1 1 2. Pumsavana 1 1 11
Asvalayana differ regarding the total number mentioned in their texts The treatises of Gautama and Angirasa belong to the Grihya-satra class whose business is to deal with sacraments only, and should not encroach upon the field of the Srautasutras which deal with sacrifices. The treatise of Asvalayana is classed under Kalpa-sutra which combines the function of the Grihya sutra and Srautasutra and may therefore refer to both sacraments and sacrifices. The list of Gantama rightly excludes Vishnu-bali and Nishkramana as sacraments. The four Veda-Vratas which are performed by a student in his teacher's house and form the combined duties of the student life (Brahma-charya) should also be excluded from the list of sacraments for which the father is responsible. Thus the sacraments proper are ten in mumber (dasa-samskara) which are traditionally known even to day. The rest of all the three lists are sacrifices only. Of these sacrifices muumbering twenty-six, nine, and nine in the three lists respectively, Mahayajnas numbering five in Gautama, but unaccountably one in both Angirasa and Asvalayana are but a summary of the householder's duties of the five daily sacrifices The first one (Brahmayajna) is the recitation of the Gayatri hymn and as such it is not a Simantonnayana..... l 1 3. 1 4. Jitakarman 1 1 1 5 Nama Karana 1 1 ... 1 6. Vishnubali 1 ... 1 7. Nishkramana 1 ... 1 ... 8 Annaprasana 1 1 9. Chaula (da) Karena or Karnavedha 1 1 1 10. Upanayan 1 1 1 ... 12. 11. Vedavrata Samavartana 13. Viv ha 4 ... 117 4 4 1 I 1 1 14 16 16 14. Mahiyajnas Purvana sraddha : 1 1 1 15. 16 Havir yajna 17 Soma yajna 18. Pakayajna ... ... ... 7 (: : 26 9 1 9
sacrifice proper which has to be done for the benefit of others than the self. The remaining four, riz. Devayaja for Gods, Pitiyaj a for (deceased) parents and other relations, Manushya yaja for the benefit of the fellow members of the society, and the Bh_tayaja for the benefit of the lower beings like animals, birds and insects, are in point of fact detailed under Parvana, Havis, Soma, and Paka sacrifices But the Parvana is only one of the varieties of Pika yajas only Thus there is a good deal of confusion in the treatises themselves, for the removal of which an effort hasbeen made in the following pages, be From mere enumeration of the sacraments it should clear that they are the demonstration of the responsibilities of married life. The parents who fail to perform the sacraments concerning the child are called by Manu and others as mere begetter (janaka) and are likened to amimals who beget children for sexual satisfaction only. Unless these responsibilities are duly carried out the parenthood, which is to be honoured by the child as equivalent to heaven, religion and sacred duty1 is not established. Apart from the economic principle of give-and-take involved in the observance of sacraments, Manu has referred to their hygienic and spiritual value: 'the holy rites prescribed by the Veda and the ceremony on conception and other sacraments sanctify the body and purify from sin in this life and after death (II 26). 'By the study of Veda, by vows, by burnt oblations, by the recitation of the sacred texts, by the acquisition of the threefold sacred science, by offering to the Gods, seers and manes, by the procreation of sons 2, by the great sacrifices, and by these sacred (srauta) rites this human body is made fit for union with God (Brahman)' (II 28). I Pit: svargah piti dharmah pit, hi pramam tapali Pitari pritim panne priyante sarvadevati. 2 Specification of sons as implied by Punsavana scrament does not exclude the daughters. Minu makes the point clear: "This whole series of ceremonies must be performed for females also in order to sanctify the body at the proper time and in the proper order... The nuptial ceremony is stafel to be the Vedic sa rament for women and to be equal to the initation, serving the husband equivalent to the residence in the house of the teacher, and the household duties the same s the duly Worship of the sacred fire." (Laws of Manu II, 66, 67).
A brief elucidation of the ceremonies is necessary in order to understand the value of these sacraments so far as they concern the personal good, social discipline, economic fairness, national stability, and moral and spiritual outlook. In order to avoid repetition, which occurs in all the texts, duties of the student life and of householder's life will be discussed separately under the category of four asramas (stages) Liz., Brahmacharya, Garhasthya, Vanaprastha, and Sannyasa. And as the details of the marriage have already been referred to above the sacraments commencing with the conception of the child (garbh¯ah na) and its prenatal and post natal care ending at the initiation (upanayana) need an elucidation here. Garbh dhira is impregnation (Manu, II, 16, 26, 142). The essential rites performed in this connection clearly show that normally the sexual connection between the husband and wife does not take place immediately following the marriage ceremony. "It is the duty of the bridegroom if he wants to cohabit his wife for a child to perform a sacrifice." This is the postnuptial sacrifice known as Kushandiki to be performed according to rule on the fourth day after the puberty preceding the conception and is, therefore, called the fourth day function (chaturthi-karana)'. This sacrifice concludes with a prayer by the husband: dhata garbham dadhitu te (may the creator enable you to conceive), desiring "a good progeny in general", a son and a learned daughter as one of the of the texts, texts, expressly mentions (Brihad Upanishad 6, 4, 17). The next rite consists in the removal of the udumbara staff from the puptial bed, which is placed between the husband and wife in order to prevent physical contact until they decide to cohabit. Before the actual action takes place a further rite is observed. That includes sprinkling of the juice of some plant (adhyanda) or grass (durva) which is stated to help in the progeny. It probably excites the desire for intercourse and may have some medical effect. This sacrament clearly indicates that there was no primitive selfishness, cruelty or callousness, and mere 1 The present day prae jee is to perform this sacrifice on the same day or the day following the marriage. This sets the couple at liberty and provides privacy and saves them from unnecessary exposure.
merital right was not enforced. Nor was there any medieval religious bias involved. Care for mutual consent and equal degree of satisfaction implies the modern state of civilization. But the ancient custom transcends modern development because in addition to sexual pleasure the idea of the progeny was not lost sight of and the child to be born was not an unwanted and unavoidable one. At the same time the birth control was ingineously achieved by the observance of prohibition for several days in the month. The Pumsavana literally implies the desire for a male child. This is in continuation of the preceding conception ceremony. This sacrament is performed optionally between the third and fourth month of the. pregnancy when the sex of the foetus takes a definite shape. This is specifically performed to recure a male child and need not be undertaken if one is equally happy to get a son or a daughter. The leading text (Brihadaranyaka-upanishad) gives a detailed account of the sacrament for getting a son of which the advantages are described in another sacred text (Aitareya Brahmana, VII. 13). In these and other texts "different processes were prescribed for having a son or daughter with particular qualities". Asvaliyana (in his Grihyasutra) describes the three fold rites, some of which are religious, some magical and some purely medical. They include the initial sacrifice (homa) which aims at getting god's blessings. Similar intention is implied by going round the sacrificial fire (agni-pradakshina). The wearing of garlands (maladharapa) and the putting of tortoise gall on the lap of the would-be mother (kurmapitha) night have some magical effect. Drinking of curds (dadhi-prasana), injection through the nose (nasta-vidhi), touching of the belly (sparsana) and the fruit bath (phala-snana) are obviously the medical devices. Further a faith-cure is adopted by the ceremonies which include the practice of placing barley grains on the hands of the wife and the declaration by the husband that this is the male organ, that is the testicles etc. of the child to be born and to be constantly thought of by the wife.' 1 The modern medical science has so for failed to prescribe remedy to regulate the sex of the child to be born and we are sceptic about the ancient prescriptions and have no patience to make an experiment and further develop the ancient scientific methods in the light of the modern medical discoveries.
The next sacrament, Simanta-unnayana, literally means the upbrushing of the hair of the head of the mother. This is done by way of a formal declaration of the pregnancy. The hairbrushing is applicable during the first pregnancy only. Another similar ceremony is performed when the bride is taken home after marriage and the husband loosens the knot of the maiden hair (Asvaliyana, 1, 7, 18). The main purpose of this sacrament is, however, indicated by its other designation, Panchamtita, five nectar, or more generally sadha-bhakshana which means the fulfilment (lit. eating) of the desires of a pregnant woman. This is generally performed in the fifth or sixth month of pregnancy when the foetus takes shape. The ceremonies include, in addition to the parting of the hair which is the simanta-unnayana proper, physical decoration, musie, and eating of desired objects in company of friends. The lute playing and singing of heroic songs (vina gayana) supply the craving for cheerful mind. The putting of the wreath of udumbara flowers (of which the plant was originally fixed in the nuptial bed to prevent physical contact) round the wife's neck is indicative of the physical decoration with clothes and ornaments also, which is a natural craving of women. It also indicates the unrestricted company of the husband, which is also an instinctive desire of women. The sipping of water is similarly indicative of eating all nice things especially those which an expectant mother wants to taste. Lastly the looking at the images reflected in water and to declare by the wife to the husband, 'I see sons, cattle, and long life of my husband' imply the perfect mental satisfaction. The fulfilment of the expectant mothers desires from the time when child takes its physical and mental shape medically prevents the physical deformities and the mental deficiencies of the child to be born. Most of the defects are inherited. The ancient texts offer a probable explanation. In this matter an experiment whenever possible can do only good and no harm. The post natal care commences with the sacrament known as Jata-karman, the ceremonies performed on the birth of the child. All the texts agree in the main purpose of these ceremonies, iz., the greeting of the child by the father and the transferring of personal influence and
giving a pet or secret name, adopting measures to keep off evils to which the chill is prone to, feeding the child and prayer for long life and good health at the end of the preliminary sacrifice. The greeting for transferrence of personal influence consisting in touching the child's body, smelling on the head to prevent bad luck", breathing on the child in order to create brain (medhajanana) and reciting prayer for the prosperity of the child. The practice of giving a pet name still continues but formerly it was kept between the parents. only. The measures adopted to keep off evils include a bath of the child which is a usual and hygeinic practice and does certainly keep off the evil of bad health; tying a gold band round the child's right wrist, the medical or magical intention is to make the child a piece of solid gold (hiranyam asrutam bhava) so that no base metal can affect it. The next two measures which appear to have some magical effect include the holding of a pot of water over the head of the child and whispering over the ground and the mother to remove evil eye from bad persons, ghosts, demons etc. The father had hardly anything to do with the next ceremony of giving the first feed to the child with honey, clarified butter and mother's breast (stana-pratidana) which even now. a-days are considered to be the best food for the newly born child. The prayers form part of the initial sacrifice performed by the father. This sacrifice is significantly called ayushya. (that which gives long life) and made to the fire god and sylvan deities for the long life of the 1 The tran-ference of personal influence by touch is recognised in acts like lover's kiss on the lips, friend's hand-hake, devotee's pray ma (obeisance) to the teacher by touching the feet of the litter by the forehead of the former, preceptor's touch by hands. on the disciple's body, etc. 2 The act of smelling consists in inhaling to draw into the lungs all the impurities, herein called bad luck, with which the child my be born. The spirit of sacrifice on the part of the father for the good of the child can hardly be nobler than this. 3 The breathing is an exacily opposite action of smelling By this the father intends to transfer to the child everything good in him especially the brain power as it is specifically stated. 4 The last resort of the father for the good of the child to pray for God's blessings and mercy.
child. It is also addressed to the sun-god, the goddess of learning and the twin gods Alvin to generate brain in the child and known as medijanana (creating of brain) as in the ceremony of breathing over the child referred to above. And ultimately the prayers specify the following injunction for the physical and intellectual perfection of the child. "Be a stone from limb to limb". "Suck long life, suck old age". "Grow with lustre of fire (Agni)". And ultimately the destiny is invoked. "May the deities of day, night, fortnight, month, season, year, old age and death take charge of the child". This brief account of the birth-ceremonies supplies enough materials to enable one to judge for himself the amount of interest the father used to take for the welfare of the child. Everything possible appears to have been done not under any compulsion but readily and willingly. It was not due to the mere instinctive love for the child. It was neither due to the economic selfish motive of the primitive father in rearing up a child chicken for the Christmas dinner. Nor is it actuated by the desire of the medieval father to keep alive a son in order to perform the oblations in the absence of which the forefathers suffer. It Was obviously due to conciousness and recognition by a highly cultured mind of the responsibility of the father in bringing to life a future citizen. The sacrifices and pleasure involved in bringing up a good citizen amount to the discharge of the debt which a civilized man readily owns and owes to the society, to the nation and to the state under whose protection he himself has prospered. And such a nobility on the part of the father is adequately repaid in time by the child to whom the father is the only object of adoration.3 1 The hymns include 'Agnir ayushyam Sa Vanaspatibhir yushyam tend tv.. yushya Ayushmanta. karomi. Medhini tve devah savit Medhini devi sarasvati Medh ni tve a'vinau devau Adhatta pushkara srajau. 3 Pit svargal piti dharmah etc. p 18, note 1. Compare "The teacher (:ch rya) 19 ten times more venerable than a sub_ teacher (up dhyy), the father a hundred times more than the teacher, but the mother a thousand times more than the father." (Manu, II, 145).
he birth ceremonies are a real sacrament which purifies both the begetter and the begotten in respect of both mental culture and the external civilization. To what extent this noble ideal is reached by the individual member of the modern society is a matter for individual searching of one's heart and action. The state laws to protect the child from callous neglect of the parents give evidence to the discreditable character of the modern society. But no laws can enforce the noble feelings of the ancient father. The next sacrament is known as the N ma-karana or naming of the child. The pet name given at birth is secret one for the use of parents only; but that is now-a-days used by friends also as a token of affection. The proper name is selected on the basis of the name of a sage, deity, or forefather. There are different rules for selecting names for the male child and the female child. Under the influence of the foreign domination, especially over the degenerated imitators, the old national principles have been given up and we see the hybrid combination in our names as in Iqbal Narayana, Ivy-lati, etc. The ceremonies include the initial sacrifice (homa), naming proper (nama-karara), tying of a gold band round probably the left wrist (hiranya-bandhana) because the right wrist has already been similarly tied at the birth time, and the similar repetition of touching (abhimarshana) and smelling (avaghrana) for the similar purposes of transferring personal influence and removing bad luck of the child. There appears, however, no personal purification in this sacrament of naming. This shows more a communal interest to retain one's own national principle in the matter of giving a name although a rose may equally be fragrant under any other name. The next sacrament is Nishkramana or bringing the child out of the nursery. This ceremony is timed at the third or fourth month after the birth. The object is to get the child introduced and accustomed to the mild light from the moon and strong glare from the tropical sun. This is a necessary precaution and obviously hygienic, because the sudden exposure of the child to the dazzling sun's glare after its residence in the darkness of the mother's womb is likely to injure, incurably in many cases, the eye-sight of the child,
The imperfection and the weakness of the eye-sight is a national loss and is mostly due to the negligence of this early precaution. The actual ceremonies are brief and simple. They consist in the usual initial sacrifice (homa), bringing out the child to the moon first and then to the sun, and finally making prayers to the moon god and the sun god to keep the eye-sight of the child in a perfect condition. After all such precautions for the preservation of the eye-sight, the sacrament of Anna-prasana or feeding of the solid food is performed in order to look after the teeth of the child. It is performed at about the sixth or eighth month after the birth, just before the teething period. The ceremonies include the ancestral worship (abhyudayika-sraddha), the usual sacrifice (homa) and prayers, and touching to the gums of the child the dishes cooked with curds, honey, clarified butter, rice, fish, and flesh of partridge and goat. To these dishes the child is made accustomed to as it grows in age. The teeth are a more important organ than even the eye-sight. Most of the internal and organic diseases are ascribed by the modern science to the defective teeth. Even the eye-sight itself is stated to be affected by tooth-diseases. The modern practices, particularly of the western variety, begin to spoil the teeth before one goes beyond teens. Between forty and fifty many have to take recourse to the artificial teeth. In Eastern countries, specially among those who continue to follow our ancient custom, there is a large percentage of people who retain the healthy teeth even at the age of eighty. The importance of this sacrament can hardly be exaggerated. ceremony. The next sacrament is concerned with measures to protect and enlarge the brain of the child, for which merely god's blessings were invoked at the birth This sacrament is known as chuda or chaula-karana or tonsure. The operation consists in the cutting of the child's hair on the head for the first time and arranging them in locks called here chuda-karana. The chuda is the tuft of hair which is left on the head when the rest of it is cut. The practice is seen elsewhere i 1 The school of Vasishtha kept the tuft on the right side 4
also. Only the free born Romans could wear uncut hair, so also the aristocratic Lords of the British society. Similar customs are prevalent among the Slavonic peoples of south Europe and the Indo-Germanic Aryans. The preservation of the uncut hair in tufts or in whole mass might have been due to the intention of leaving the growing skull undisturbed so that the brain inside may enlarge to its fullest growth. The common practice prevalent among all the aristocratic and brainy people of the world will warrant such a theory. But owing to an exaggerated notion of modern superiority over the ancient, the present civilization has no patience to examine the wisdom of the past. The tonsure ceremonies of the Hindus or Indo-Aryans will, however, clearly show the precautions adopted in ancient India to leave the growing brain undisturbed. The ceremonies comprise a preliminary oblation, mixing of hot and cold water, rubbing of tepid water over the head, smearing of butter on the hair to be cut, putting of sharp kusa grass on the hair, pressing of the razor on the hair and then cutting the hair and bathing after the haircut. The wiping of the razor and putting of the cut hair into cowdung are the two subsequent functions. If our reasonable surmise be correct the great importance of this sacrament can easily be realised. After the ocular and dental treatment the intellectual treatment completes the necessary precautions for the physical and the intellectual well-being of the child. This will further vindicate the cultural level and the civilized condition of the Hindus in the matter of bringing up a child. After the building up of a healthy constitution and sharp intellect, attention is devoted to the education of the child in an atmosphere of quiet simplicity and affectionate discipline. For this purpose the sacrament of upanayana or bringing the child to a selected teacher is adopted. As this sacrament takes place along with the ceremony of putting on the child by the father and of Atri and Kasyapa on both sides. The decendants of Angiras kept five tufts. But the school of Bhrigu kept no tuft and clean shaved the head.
the yajnopavita or the "sacred chord of the free man" and furnishing it with the student's outfit and uniform, viz, vastra (clothes comprising under garment and scarf), ajina (skin cover), danda (staff implying self protection equipments) and mekhala (girdle) implying strength the upanayana is, otherwise, known as only the sacred thread ceremony. This was a common practice among the other ancient sects also. The Parsees put on sacred shirt, the Buddhists on yellow cover, and the Christians on white robe. The Hindus adopted the "thread garment" probably owing to the hot climate and desire to prevent the rise of a sense of luxury as stated in one of the texts (Samskara Ratnamala, pp 189, 190). According to another older text, the laws of Harita, women also could take a similar course of study with the accomplishment of the same ceremonies. The ceremonies of the upanayana proper include anjali-purana (filling the joint palm in the form of cup with water by way of showing the child's desire to initiation), asmarohana (ascending a piece of stone to show the firm stand and determination), dadhiprasana (eating of curd in order to clear up the mind), hastagrahana or upanayana (bringing the child's hand to the teacher), paridana (giving over the child by parents) and svikarana (the mutual acceptation by the pupil and admission by the teacher). The other ceremonies form part of the student's vow of learning' and have been inadvertently mixed up with the upanayana which should end at handing over the child to the teacher. This brings the child to his second birth (dvijatva). At this birth the famous Savitri verse upon which the twice-born (Brahmana) have to meditate daily," is considered to be the mother and the Acharya (teacher) is the father (Manu, II. 170). This really implies that henceforward the responsibilities of shaping a career are transferred from the begetters to the student himself and to the teacher under whose charge the child is placed. Thus with the upanayana or initiation end the ten principal sacraments for which the parents are directly responsible. 1 They are referred to under the Brahmacharya. 2 Rig Veda III, 62,10.