Marriage in ancient India

arriage The sexes instinctively unite. This natural and necessary union among men and women is known as marriage when it is legalised in some recognised form. Thus normally no question of disunion or disagreement, no squabble of divorce should even arise if the union is correctly formed. The consummate sex-union, known as sringara in Sanskrit, in which the mighty spirit of divine love bursts all bonds and bounds of physico-sensual life, stands forth in all its glory and transforms life to its sweetest immortal essence. Thus in Hindu mythology the natural conjugality of the self created Svayambhuva and Satarupa (lit. of hundred beautiful forms) coming into existence as a couple illustrates a general principle of life. Similarly Sivitri is an integral emanation of Brahma and their union is natural. Svihi represents the inner igneous power of Agni (fire god) and so they are a permanent pair. V.runi is the liquid flowing force springing up from the ocean depths of the heart of the presiding deity Varuna of the ocean, and so they are found in an eternal wedlock. Vayavi is the female form assumed by the sweet and soothing power of breeze that resides in the tempestuous power of the wind as the wind god Vayu unites with Viyavi. Manmatha (lit churned from the min) is the divinity of love in its sensuous aspects and he is mated with Rati, the feminine spirit of sweet and serene enjoyment. The Prajapatis or the fathers and ancestors of all beings have all their feminine counterparts of life, finely fitted in unto their nature, character and disposition. Thus Marchi is united with Kali, Atri with Anusayi, Angiras with Sraddha, Pulastya with Havirbhu, Pulaha with Gati, Kratu with Kriy, Bhrigu with Khyati, Vasishtha with Arundhati, and Atharva with Santi. Kasyapa begot on Aditi. Indra and other gods brought forth by ten other consorts different lines of progeny. Indra got Sachi as his queen.

aksha Prajapati got Prasuti for his wife by whom he got twenty-seven stars as his daughters. "The creator or active god lives a life of love and beawy. His life and loveliness are not abstract ideas. The philosophers only relegate Him so ar empty abstraction of power and wisdom, justice and truth. This is also the christian conception of an asexual life of the Divine Being with the shining company of sexless attendants, argels, arch angels, seraphs, cherubs, throne, virtues, powers, domiratiors determined by the monastic ideas of religion". At the root of the growth of a family is the union between the male and the female. By a natural instinct, the sexes unite and expard. Thereby the continuity of race or species is maintained. By a great irgenuity of the creator this instinctive union is associated with a unique sexual pleasure and metal happiness. It also ensures the fullest growth and self realization of the males and females through their children. The degree of cultural progress in this union of sexes depends upon the amount of responsibility freely recognised by the father and the mother towards each other as well as towards the children born of such union o counteract the possibility of shirking this free recognition and assumption of responsibility as also to regularise. The union marriage-laws were made by all civilized societies. These laws may be mere customs as among the pri- "mitives whose motive was selfish and the method was the might as right. The marriage-laws in medieval society were inwended to advance the religious bias and ignored the social discipline and the individual and material good. The advanced modern societies by way of combining individual liberty with the social discipline have formulated contradictory laws. The contradictions are due to ignoring the natural laws whereby the females suffer in bearing the child and getting old quicker and also ignor. ing the moral and spiritual good in addition to social discipline which accrues from not only sexual purity but an all round and everlasting chastity. Thus the marriagelaws may aim at mere personal and sensual satisfaction purely social good and national advantages, or at a spiritual progress which is facilitated when the male 1 Vide 'Sex in celestial life' by K. Saha Kalyan Kalpataru, Vol. XII, No. 4, April, 1940 pp. 418-23.

and the female unite in a complete unit and reach the fullest human growth and the salvation. Such a marriage is considered as a sacrament (saskara, lit. refinement) among the Hindus. Among the Muslims, Christians and other sects marriage is treated as a contract and as such it is to be registered for a recognition and protection by the state laws of the land. In such a contractual union man and woman are much like the partner of a joint business firm and have the option of separating under certain circumstances. The Hindu marriage being a spiritual union of man and woman needs no registration and permits of no separation. The union is not only life long but it is assumed to last even after one's death. Another fundamental feature of the Hindu marriage is that the nuptial ceremonies bind a man and a woman into a complete being of which one half is man and the other half woman.' This romantic ideal is physically represented in the ArdhaNariswara image of God Siva and Parvati. Such a complete unity develops in modern successful marriage also. But from the view point of culture there can be no higher ideal of marriage than what is aimed at by the Hindu system. All the eight forms of Hindu marriage, which incidentally cover all the possible forms of union between sexes, are not spiritual in outlook and at the outset. But even the base ones of these forms are ultimately turned into sanctified union. And thereby the social discipline and order are maintained and the spiritual development is re-assured. The illustrations of some of these forms are met with in the Vedic, Epic and Buddhist literature but the regular codification of marriage-laws were made later by the class of literature known as Grihva Sutra and Smriti. Marriage-laws were compiled by the reers. They were not mere agreements like the prese laws formulated by the common or majority consent of the people's representatives. Nor were they dictated by the autocratic monarchs. They, however, evince the induetive method, fruit of deep thinking and free n 1 In Brihad ranyaka Upanisad God is said to have divided h'm self into two portions which bec me the bride and the bridegroom ef : Sa imeva atmanam dvidhi apitayat Tat patischa patni cha abhavat

he individual good, social order, political discipline and spiritual perfection were the results aired at. The Laws of Manu (III 27-34) and others have thoroughly described the eight forms of Hindu marriage in an order of preference. The first one is called Brahma which primarily and expressly aims at the achievement of Brahman or God, that is, salvation through the performance of householder's duties. This may be translated as spiritual. "The gift of a marriageable daughter with suitable dowries is made to a learned man of good conduct whom the father or guardian invites". The union of Siva and Parvati, which is cited as an illustration, shows, however, that the bride herself underwent severe penances in order to secure the affection and companionship of the learned God. The instance of Arundhati and Vasishtha also indicates a mutual desire of the bride and the groom for an intellectual companiorship in addition to partnership of householder's duties. It is therefore considered as an ideal form for all. In the next, Daiva or divine, form of marriage "the gift of a daughter who has been decked with ornaments is made to a priest who duly officiates in a sacrifice during the course of its performance". The competent priest of ancient times was considered as the most promising man of the society having proved his attainments and character by the successful performance of priestly duties, which was the most noble and lucrative profession in ancient societies. Such a groom would be the first choice of the bride and her parents at any time. Such union promises intellectual companionship, economic freedom and an aristocratic social status. This may be illustrated by the marriage of Chyavana and Richika and of Indra and Indr.ni. The latter instance will show its royal character. If no extra emphasis is given to the priestly profession which is as good as any other noble and learned profession this form would look like a modern aristrocratic connection. The Arsha or sagely form derives its significance from Rishi (sage) who is usually reluctant to undertake the responsibilities of wedlock and wants to remain free to follow his intellectual pursuits. He is respected for his brain power and character and is expected to beget intellectual children who are an asset of the society. Thus both the bride and her parents desire to have such a bridegroom. The decision of such a groom to enter

. FAMILY LIFE OF SACRAMENTS AND SACRIFICES 5 into the matrimonial connection is implied by the condition of this form. "The parents of the bride give away their daughter to a sage after receiving from the bridegroom, for the fulfilment of the sacred law, a cow and a bull, or two pairs". It is clear that the cattle given by the groom is not the sale-price of the bride; it merely indicates that the sagely groom has decided to live a householder's life and earn his livelihood by agricukura! pursuits. The cattle given to the bride's parents serves both as security and surety. Even if no children are born of such union the sagely temper and the congenial companionship are ensured. The marriage of the sage Agastya and Lopamudr: may be cited as an illustration. This is an ordinary middle class marriage and has no spiritual bias in it. The fourth commendable form is significantly called Manusha (human) or Prajapatya which expressly aims at children (praja). In contrast to the spiritual, divine, and sagely forms this is the ordinary human union of man and woman solemnized with the express injunction "May both of you perform together your duties". Its main purpose is indicated by its title of prajapatya which implies that the husband and wife should unite for the purpose of giving birth to children. There is an instinctive desire of sexes, the fulfilment of which is emphasized by this form. It also reveals the fundamental nature of Hindu and other marriages, viz., a wife is to be secured to beget a son (or a daughter) in order to perpetuate the householder's duties of offering oblations to the manes, feeding the dependants, guests and the needy beings, and thereby maintain the society and its institutions I These four forms are stated to be the normal and laudable ones. Manu praises (III 37-42) these forms by saying that the son born of the first form liberates from sin ten ancestors, ten descendants and himself as the twenty-first; the son of the second form saves seven ancestors and seven descendants; the son of the third form three in the ascending and three in the decending lines; and the son of the fourth form six in either line. The children of these four forms are stated to be "endowed with the qualities of beauty and goodness, possessing wealth and fame, obtaining as many enjoyments as they desire and being most righteous they will 1 Putrarthe kriyate bhɩry, putrah pindaprayojakah.

live a hundred years". Thus the laudable marriages are to be judged not only by personal comfort, convenience and happiness of the husband and wife but also by the fruits. The remaining four are the special forms allowed but not preferred owing to the special circumstances and human weaknesses. The object was to keep up the social order, discipline and equilibrium. But the children of these blamable marriages are stated to be "cruel and speakers of untruth, who have the Veda and the sacred law". The fifth form is Asura or undivine. According to this form a bridegroom receives a grown up maiden after having given, according to his own will, as much wealth as he can afford to the kinsmen and the bride herself. It implies a sort of elopment and money is paid in settlement of the anger of the bride's people and the security of the bride herself. It may be illustrated by the marriage of Pandu and Madri of the Mahabh rata fame. The Gandharva is the love or romantic form. It is the voluntary union of a maiden and her lover like the Gandharvas who indulge in sexual connection whenever they fall in love. They have no patience to await the sanction of the society. The sexual intercourse which is its only purpose takes place before any rites are observed. It is, however, recognised by the society after the usual rites are performed in order to maintain sexual purity, social peace, and individual harmony. The marriage of Sakuntali and Dushyanta may be cited as an illustration. ' The Rakshasa or heroic form implies the forcible abduction of a maiden from her home, while she cries. out and weeps after her kinsmen have been slain. The society recognised this highhandedness in order to offer facilities to a hero to accept the abducted maiden as his lawfully married wife after going through the usual ceremonies. This form is illustrated by the abduction of Subhadra by Arjuna, and of Rukmini by Krishna. These marriages proved happy and successful. This is perhaps the reason for the continuance of its formal character in the modern marriage procession of the bridegroom which in some places looks like a military expedi tion composed of dummy forces and martial music. The Paisacha or devilish form is the mere molesta.

tion of a girl by stealth when she is in sleep, intoxicated, or in an unbalanced state of intellect. The union of Usha and Pradyumna may be cited as an illustration. This and Asura (undivine) forms were considered unlawful even in Manu's time (III 25). The readiness, however, of the state to recognise such outrage as marriage after due performance of usual rites implies the sagacity of the society, because the object was to maintain the sexual purity and social discipline. These eight forms, it should be noted, display various principles. The first four commendable forms are parent-made alliances but they imply mutual consent. They should be considered as adult marriage for, otherwise, the injunctions and conditions lose their significance altogether. There is hardly any trace of medieval fanaticism about them. They They are modern in their dignified outlook and suit the temperament of the members of a civilized society. Of the remaining four Asura and Pais cha were considered unlawful even in ancient time. The principle of the former appears to be purchase, but that is fictitious, because the purchase money is returned by the bride's parents to her husband. The latter is brutal violation of the modesty of a girl. Both these clearly imply adult alliance, because unless the girl is sufficiently grown up there would be no inducement to elopment or violation by force. The other two forms, the Gandharva (romantic) and Rakshasa (heroic) are similarly adult union. In the former the immediate purpose is sexual intercourse. In the latter also if the girl be not sufficiently grown up there will be hardly any inducement for abduction and consequent fight. These inferences are in apparent contradiction to the lower ages of marriage prescribed. It seems, however, that the lower limit was fixed to suit the special condition of local application. We shall see later that sacramental rites of the Br.hma form even shows that the bride attained puberty before marriage. The marriage rites are common for all the forms of marriage. As a sacrament the ceremonies commence with the invocation of God's mercy and ancestral blessings by means of prayer and service (sriddha) known as the abhyudayika (progressive) and end with a concluding sacrifice called Kusandika. The intermediate ceremonies comprise the kanyadana (handing over the bride), panigrahana (acceptance of the bride's hands), asmarohapa (ascending

00 8 INDIAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION together the symbolic stone of firmness), and sapta-padi (walking together seven steps). The marriage rites which are illustrated under the Brahma (spiritual) form are common to all the other forms. As a sacrament the muptial ceremonies, after the negotiation ends at the mutual consent, commence with an initial sacrifice called kusandiki in some text, which according to other texts is performed at the conclusion only. The object is to pray for the blessings of gods for the success of the marriage. The first ceremony, as it continues now, is the n.ndimukha service (sraddha) which is performed separately by the fathers of the bride and the bridegroom by way of invoking of invoking ancestral blessings. The third ceremony consists in giving a hygienic bath to the bridegroom and the bride with powdered turmeric and other fragrant things and is known as gatra-haridra (besmearing the body with turmeric powder). The primary object of this bath is to generate a sex desire in the bride and the bridegroom. In this connection a significant prayer is made to the god of love (kamadeva) by the relation of the bride 'your name is love (kama) but your real epithet is lust (mada), may your intoxication (sura, lit. wine) bring the bridegroom to the bride, because bride is the source of the fire of sexual desire and the fire is actually produced by the sex connection. It is further stated that the female sex organ has been created as honey (to attract bees of lover) and that it is the second mouth of the creator: with this the bride overpowers the man and brings under control and lords over everybody 2. She is asked to satisfy the sex desire of her husband³. The bridegroom himself after accepting the hands of the bride says that the object of giving and accepting the bride is to satisfy the mutual sex desire (kama) and he promises to carry out that object*. 1 Kima Veda te nania mado namasi saminay,mum sura to abhavat paramatra janm gne tapo nirmitosi svaha. 2 Imanta upasta madhuni samsrjami prajapater mukham et d dvitiyam tena pumsobhibh wasi sarvan vagin vaginyasi rajni svaha. 3 Agnim kravy.dam krnvan guhanih strinam up sthem rishayah puranas ten jyam akrnvan strai ringam tvastram tvayi tad dadhitu svihi 4 Ka idam kasmi ad t kimah k miya adat kamo data kimah pratigrahita kumah samudram avisat k mena tva pratigrhnami kamaitat te.

one, is The next ceremony which is the chief known as sampradana (or kanyadana) and consists in completely handing over the bride to the bridegroom. This custom is common among the Christians and the Muslims also, and implies that the bride herself cannot make her over to the man even of her own choice in a sacramental form of marriage. In the absence of the bride's father some one else has to handi her over. According to the Hindu custom the father formally and respectfully receives the bridegroom and asks his consent to choose him formally as bridegroom and asks whether he agrees to perform the duties of the husband of his daughter. The bridegroom formally and publicly assumes the responsibility. He is enjoined to protect and maintain the bride, to appreciate her merits and to forgive her short-comings'. Thereafter the gift is made by nientioning the names of the fore-fathers of both sides so that there may arise no troubles regarding the identity of the bride and the bridegroom. Along with the bride are given dowries consisting of food, water, beddings, cattle, gold and jewels, and landed property. Then the hands of the bride and bridegroom are tied together and the ends of their nuptial garments are also knotted firmly. This indicates the unification of the bride and bridegroom both physically and as partners. And the union is prayed to be as firm and successful as between Indra and Indrani, Vibhivasu and Svaha, Soma and Rohini, Nala and Damayanti, Vaisravana and Bhadra, Vasishtha and Arundhati, Gauri and Sankara and lastly as between Narayana and Lakshmi. Each of these illustrions unions has a special noble feature, all of which are invoked here. Thus after accepting the bride the bridegroomi takes her from the marriage pandal to the inner abode (pradhana griha)³. Therein the nuptial fire for joint 1 Padyadibhir abhyarchya varatvena bhavanta vrine. Yathe vihi ta vara.karma kuru. Yatha jnanam karavani. Darvani pushpani phalanchaiva vastram tambalam eva cha Ebhil kanya maya datta rakshanam poshanam kuru Asyali kanyaya doshi ksh.ntavya-gun istu grahyah 2 Bhumi annam jalam Sayyam gohiranyadikan yautukam jamatre dadyat. 3 It should be in the husband's house, because according to custom prevalent among some people the ceremonies at bride's house end here. But usual custom is to perform several other ceremonies 2

sacrifice (sayojaka-agni) is kindled and established. Around this fire the first promises and agreements between the husband and wife are made. As a token of maintenance throughout the life the husband clothes the wife with two pieces of garment, one for the lower body and the other for the upper. And addressing her respectfully says "Oh, honoured lady, live here happily a hundred years, be glorious and while living enjoy wealth and plenty; do not you be separated from me, stay on here and enjoy universal life (i.e. peace and prosperity); you prosper in this bouse with dear children and be mindful of performing the household duties."" The next ceremony is known as sapta-padi (walking together seven steps). As they proceed step by step round the sacrificial fire the husband prays to god for the companionship and co-operation of the wife in gaining at the first step fulfilment of all desires, at the second strength, at the third performance of household duties (the fire sacrifices), at the fourth complete union and identity of purpose (lit. friendship), at the fifth cattle, at the sixth wealth, and at the seventh the seven fruits of sacrifices. Thereafter addressing the bride the husband sums up his promises towards the wife "Oh, beloved you be my comrade in achieving the seven objects (of married life). I promise to become your friend, no other women shall break our union (friendship), and our friendship be the source of all happiness." at the bride's place. Thus description shows later that it took place in her father's house before the bride was taken in a car to her husband's house. 1 Satancha jiva saradah suvarchcha Vasuni chinye vibhrijasi jivan Ihaiva stvam mi viyoshtam Visvam ayir vyasnutam Iha pr yani prajaya te samrddhyatani Asmin grihe garhapatyaya jagrihi. 2 The similar promises are made in Christian form of marriage also, cf : The priest asks the bridegroom and the bride-- (a) "Wilt thou love her, comfort her and forsaking others keep thee only unto her ?" "I will," says the bridegroom. (b) "Wilt thou have this man? Wilt thou obey him and serve him, love, honour and keep him in sickness and in health?" "I will," says the bride.

Then addressing the visitors and friends he says "All of you together look at this my most auspicious (sumangali) wife, pray for her great fortune (saubhaj ya) before you depart." He also invokes all the Gods. "May gods purify our hearts, may the gods of water, air and creation, unite our two hearts into one (samdadhatu ekikaromu). That is, let us become one by our elements, nature and wisdom. Thus the Hindu wife is not mere sahakarmi (colleague or partner in rearing up children) but she is sahadharmini (co-worker) bearing the most dignified title of Patn, so called because of her unavoidable association in the performance of all sacrificial rites. In the absence of Siti, for instance, Rima Chandra had to get carved a life-like image in gold of his consort in order to perform the horse sacrifice. " After the prayers and promises for the unification of the heart, a physical unification is demonstrated by the ceremony known as the panigrahara (accepting the hands). The husband affectionately clasps with his both palms the hands of the bride and makes six other promises. "As the gods have kindly given me you for the (completion of) household life, I catch hold of your hands as a matter of great fortune; stay on with me till old age.' (i. e. death separates us). "Oh my bride always look as me with kind eyes (akrura, lit. not cruel), he other than hurting your husband (apatighatin), be pleasant to our members of the family and cattle, be of pleasant mind and well balanced power (suvarchas), give birth to heroic children, never miscarry (jivasu), perform the five daily sacrifices (devakami pancha-mah yaji bhi-rata), cause happiness to us and do good to all biped (relations) and quadruped (cattle) of our family". "May the Creator give us (the benefit of) children till old age, may Aryam endow our descendants with great qualities. Oh bride the gods of all good have given me you, therefore you come into your husband's family and do good to the biped and quadruped members of the family". Then the wife demands "may my husband facilitate my entry into his family so that I can settle there happily and peacefully and without having any enemy to face."1 Agreeing to this and being supported by the wife, who keeps standing touching his right shoulder, the husband prays to the Gods for six items of blessing for her. "May fire bring her children 1. Fra me pati ya nah panthih kalpatim Siva arishta patilokam gameyam

" (praja), may Varuna protect them from death so that she may not have to weep for the illness of her children". "May she perform (jointly with me) the daily sacrifice to the nuptial fire, may her children remain alive and obedient till her old age, may she be never of empty lap (asanya-upasthi without having children on the lap), may she enjoy the happiness of having grand-children.' "May the sky god (dyauh) protect your back, Vayu and Asvinau your thighs,' the creator sun your children of the lap (who live on breast-feeding, stanandhaya) upto the age of their putting on clothes, thereafter Brihaspati and Visvedeva protect (i.e. give intelligence to) them". "May in your house never rise the cry of wailing; the sorrowful weeping women, other than you, be in enemy's house, even if you have to weep may not be it of heartrending sort, may you adorn the husband's family having your husband alive, and seeing your children happy and prosperous". "Oh my beloved, I shall remove barrenness from you, children's death from you, your death, and all misfortunes from you, and shall transfer them like a (weathered) garland to the enemy". And lastly "Oh god of death, may death be away from us, may. freedom from (untimely) death be ours, may death-god give us freedom from fear. Oh death, you go elsewhere, I say this personally to you, do not take away our children and grand children, do not kill our heroic people". These are stated to be the six ajya offerings to the fire god made jointly by the husband and wife. The next ceremony is known as asmarohana or ascending the stone. The wife takes her arms over the shoulders of the husband and the palms are joined together before they ascend upon a stone. The ceremony implies the firm establishment like stone in married life and the joint strength to overcome one's enemy². Then the wife frees her palms and body from those of her husband and independently prays to the fire god: "may my husband live a hundred years, may my relations of husband be prosperous in wealth and children"." Then the husband prays: "may the god never separate my I This probably implies that the wife should keep fit to bear children. 2 Imam asmanam aroha asma iva tvam sthira bhava dvishantam apavadhasva ma oha tvam dvishatam adhah. 3 Me patih satam varshani jivatu edhantam jnatayo mama.

wife from my family." "Oh Indra, be pleased to make this bride bear me good children and be loving to her husband and bring forth ten children and the husband as the eleventh". "Be you the queen of my house ruling over your father-in-law, mother-in-law, sisters-in-law, and brothers-in-law." Give your heart to my undertaking (vrata), may your heart follow mine (i.e. may we feel, think and act in the same way), listen to my words wholeheartedly and willingly (eka-manas), may the god of wisdom induce you to be mindful of my interests (madartha)". The next ceremony is known as the Uttara-vivaha (second marriage) which consists in performing a sacrifice and making six other prayers. "May by my final offerings to the fire god (purnahuti) be removed (lit 1 Sa imam devo Aryama preto munchatu mamutah. 2 This tallies wonderfully with Russia's population drive. The Soviet government have placed motherhood in the forefront of the national life. Increased premiums are being Increased premiums are being paid for child. bearing starting with the third child. Confinement vacations from work are increased to eleven weeks. Food rations are doubled during the last three months of pregnancy and first four months of nursing. The duty and honour of motherhood is spot.lighted by creation of "Motherhood Medal" for mothers having five or six children. An order of "Maternity Glory" has been created for mothers with seven, eight or nine children, and an order of "Mother Heroine" for mothers with ten or more children. On the other hand not merely childless people will be required. to pay special taxes amounting to six per cent of their income but parents with only one child will be called upon to contribute one and half per cent of their income and parents with two children one per cent This will account for the directive of the Hindu legislators regarding sons and successors of as many as thirteen or fourteen kinds viz., son begotten on wives of different c .stes, on widow, adopted -the legitimate son of the body, the son begotten on a wife, the son adopted, the son made, the son secretly born of unknown father, the son cast off (deserted by real parents), the son of an unmarried damsel, the son received with the wife, the son bought, the son begotten on 2. remarried woman, the son self given and the son of a sudra female (Manu, IX, 159-160). The importance of the son in the past and in the present time is almost the similar. "Through a son he (father) conquers the worlds, through a son's son he obtains immortality, but through his son's grandson he gains. the world of the sun. Between a son's son and the son of a daughter there exists in this world no difference; for even the son of a daughter saves him in the next world like the son's son". (Manu IX, 137, 139).

set right, Samayami) bride's defects (short comings) in the eye-brows, sockets, mouth, in the hair of the head, in the eye sight, in the shedding of tears, in the conduct and character (la), in the talk, in the smile, in the brightness (roka) of the teeth, in the hands, in the feet; in the thighs, in the sex organ, in the knees, in the joints; and in whatever other undesirable and terrible (ghora) things in all your limbs --all be removed". Thereafter the bride and bridegroom get up and go our and look at the star in the sky, and the bride declares by mentioning her name as the wife of her husband by name, "Oh, the Dhruva (fixed) star, as you are fixed up, I am in the like manner permanently settled down to my husband's family; Oh, Arundhati, like yourself, I have become attached in body, mind, and words to my husband; 1 am as fixed up to my husband's family as the sky (dyauh), the earth, the whole universe, and all these mountains." This ceremony concludes with the good wishes of the husband for a full life of the wife. The next ceremony consists in introducing the bride to the regular home life. First the husband and then the wife partake of simple unexciting food (anna) as in the course of student life (brahmacharya) for three days and nights and sleep together on the ground as indicated in the conception ceremony which is referred to below. In the course of this feeding ceremony like the clothing one referred to above the husband says, "Now I join you with me by the fetter of food which is the chain of life and soul ti.e, which keeps the body and the soul ucgether), as I have already tied your mind and heart by the true kno. of marriage; let your heart be mine and my heart yours; thus as food is the bond of life I bind you hereby". ་ Thereafter by ascending a car the couple go to their own home. The bride is in.roduced to the family members. Thereafter on the fourth day the couple 1 In certain modern families where the betrothal is performed at the pre-puberty stage, this second marriage is performed within. sixteen days after the first appearance of puberty and this ceremony finally consolid :tes the union. 2 For all pra tical purposes the heavenly luminaries, the earth, the mountains and the universe appear to the onlookers as fixed up, although astronomically these bodies move in accordance with certain regularity.

perform a sacrifice (chaturthi-homa) by way of physical purification. Thereafter they begin to live as husband and wife in the same bed but without touching each other, as described under the conception ceremony (garbhidh.na) below until they mutually decide cohabit and beget a child. to These ceremonies with sligh charges bere and there still prevail all over the coumry and among all communities and sect of the Hindus. But there are local and sectional differences, no: with regard to the basic custom, but with regard to particulars. Thus a general induction is possible regarding the cultural values of these ceremonies and the advanced state of civilization indicated by them. Under the forms of marriage is has been pointed out that both the bride and bridegroom attained the age of majority before they were marriedl. This conclusion is further supported by the various ceremtories of the pre-nuptial bath and the post-nuptial prohibition of Sexual relation. The rules of abstentior (brahmacharya) which are to be observed at least for the first four nights after the marriage and the period of student life extending to about twenty-five years for the boys and seventeen or eighteen for the girls lend further support to this point. The next point of importance to note is that the ideal Hindu forni, like all other civilized forms. is still a parent made alliance but not without some consent from the bride. The myth of purchasing the bride under the arsha and the sura forms is entirely fictitious because the so-called purchase money is returned to the bridegroom in the former case and to the bride in the latter. Another point of interest to note is that even in the spiritual form the primary object of marriage is to set up a domestic life, to satisfy natural sex instinct, to beget children, to provide facilities, comfort and convenience not only of the couple but also of all other members of the joint family. The muptial vows freely made by the husband and the wife, and both expressed and implied promises to stick to each other, not as the master and the slave, but as friends aud equal partners clearly indicate the high cultural value and the material benefits of Hindu marriage In normal case there was no need to provide for divorce and separation, but for abnormal cases of impotency and desertion by the husband and

the barrenness and other defects in the wife suitable provisions were made to meet to meet the situation without injuring the social discipline and the national and spiritual ideals¹.

1 Nashte mrite pravrajite klive cha patite patau, 2