Conclusion

Costumes and ornaments play an important role in measuring the growth of material culture of humankind. As mentioned in the introduction, some religious beliefs and social customs compelled men and women to wear certain dresses and ornaments and also to abstain from the use of some, as demanded by situation. Yet, ultimately dress and drapery are symbols of the passion of human kind towards the physical world.

Literary works of Sanskrit, which can be classified in to three periods namely Vedic, Sūtra and classical are rich sources of information regarding the cosmetics, costumes and ornaments of the Indian people of the respective periods. The references therein are a reflection of the artistic sense and the sense of beauty of the people who desired cultural upliftment. They give indications regarding the differences in dress and drapery on the basis of climate, region, time, gender, caste and economic status.

From the references in Vedic literature, we can infer that contemporary society recognised the importance of dress and because of that dressed elegently. A well dressed person was respected in the society even in those days. Certain Ṛgvedic terms like Seraphim, Suvāsas etc. represent a well dressed person. Deities like Varuṇa, Puṣā and Uṣas are described as wearing gorgeous clothoes at many places in Ṛgveda. Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa also mentions the need of civilized to wear some types of clothes^[1].

The case is not very much different in that of cosmetics and ornaments also. There is a Ṛgvedic hymn, which indicates that people use ornaments to enhance beauty^[2]. The special affinity of women towards cosmetics is discernable from certain Sūktas in Atharvaveda

There are no clear evidences regarding the making of garments and ornaments during this period; yet certain technical terms related to their production are used here and there. Similarly direct references are lacking to prove the existence of a society who were experts in the production of garments and ornaments, but adjectives of some deities indicate the existence of such a society. For e.g. in one place in Ṛgveda, the god Puṣā is known by the name Vāsovāya. There in another context, the day and night are compared to two women weavers, who engaged in weaving by interlacing the long thread between them. There is mention in Ṛgveda about persons who are very dedicatedly involved in making ornaments.

No special references are present in Vedic literature about the trade and commerce of garments and ornaments. But an invocational hymn in Atharvaveda in the form of a prayer requesting prosperity in business, can be regarded as covering all business transactions. Moreover certain references in Ṛgveda stating that countries like Gāndhāra and Paruṣṇi are famous for wooll, can be regarded as corroborating evidences.

In Vedic period materials which are not mentioned in other periods such as Pīlu, Nalada, Pramandinī etc. were used for making cosmetics. This does not mean that materials like Candana, Aguru and Kuṅkuma were not used for making them. The ornaments of this period were made up of flowers, beads and metals. Jewels are mentioned, but their use was relatively low. Clothes were mainly of barks, wool, linen and skin. Silk garments like Dukūla and Aṃśuka are not mentioned. In those days linen clothes were included among silk clothes.

Dharmasūtras, Gṛhyasūtras, Aṣṭādhyāyī etc. are the literary works that are helpful for understanding the Indian society in the next period namely Sūtra period. In contrast to Vedic period, jewel and cloth industry were in a highly developed state. There are clear references to social groups like embroiders, weavers, tailors, dyers, washermen, goldsmiths, gem cutters and beauticians. In addition to clothes of bark, wool, skin and linen, silk clothes were also in vogue. Ornaments were not only of flowers and metals, but jewel ornaments are also mentioned in this period. Even though the society was much more progressed in Sūtra period than that of Vedic period, it also kept some conventions, customs and laws regarding the use of clothes and ornaments as formulated in Dharmaśāstras and Smṛtis.

We see the picture of luxury at its zenith in the classical period. This is also seen in the case of cosmetics and costumes. The external influences on dress and ornaments are also seen in this period. Certain references in Mahābhārata and Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra are clear evidences to these external influences. Making of cosmetics, costumes and ornaments is considered more as an art than as a vocation in the classical period. Texts like Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra and Bṛhatsaṃhitā give ample evidences to the existence of well developed textile and jewel industries.

One thing becomes clear when we examine the literary works of these three periods. There were certain basic similarities among the costumes and oenaments of all the periods; but people modified the shape or mode of usage based on their own tastes or external influences.

In short, these descriptions regarding the cosmetics,costumes and ornaments of ancient India are footprints of their traditional history. If we compare them with our present day practices, these traditions can be seen to be followed in a subtle way.

Human beings are always fascinated by dress and drapery. On acount of this fascination, artisans and craftsmen give variety and beauty to the costumes based on the times and their own imagination. It is difficult to identify all the costumes and ornaments mentioned in Sanskrit literature. Yet we can hope that the available information will help to make more studies in this field.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

IC, p.192

[2]:

X.77.2