Chapter 5 - Brihatkatha-kosha study—Socio-religious conditions

SOCIO-RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS The Brihatkatha-Kosha throws light on the social conditions of medieval and ancient India. We are recording here the details. Entertainment: People were having several types of entertainment such as seeing dances, playing dices, and attending parties of drinking and so on. Here are some details: Drama (nataka): References are there to dramas enacted on special occasions such as carfestival (12.140). We hear of a group of thieves getting engrossed in enjoying a drama till morning and forgetting their own business (59.14). Dance (nrtya): The professional artists known as nata (102.59, 98.8) held dance programs in night. These natas are said to be endowed with vilasa, vibhrama and navabhava(102.60-61). We hear of a person coming late in the night after watching a dance programme and facing the wrath of his wife (102.62). In these performances, sometimes the men were dressed like women. In Rajagrhapura the make up of two male dancers was so real that they were mistaken to be females by people (109.3-6). We hear of a handicapped man, well versed in singing

159 dancing and playing lute (85.14). Besides, we find well-dressed pole-dancers (lankhaka) entertaining the people (85.14). Dice-play (dyulta): The three stories titled pasakadyutakathanaka ( No.36), dyutakhyanakakathanaka (No.39) and kapardakadyztakathanaka (No.50) deal exhaustively with dice play. It was one of the favourite sports of the people. Some took it as a means of acquiring health. The wimmers won kapardakas. Even though dice-play was considered as an evil¹, people used to be attached to this game. Even Brahmins were indulging in this game (65.16). We hear of separate gambling halls with elaborate sitting arrangements (36-4). It was almost a habit of many kings and other top royal employees like priest etc. to play dice at leisure hours (78.67). Some were too much addicted and playing it day and night" (40.2-3). Party, Club (gosthi)³: For the marriage of his daughter, a liquor vendor hosted a programme of dine and dance (gosthi-31.27, vanabhojana -31.20) in a fruit-orchard. While all were drinking wine, Sivabhuti, a Brahmin friend drank milk (31.23). The liquor-vendor (Saundha) organised the party in a fruit-orchard for him The food cooked in a Brahmin family was served. He refused to take food from a Sudra and therefore this special arrangement was made. (31.17).

160 Education: There was a well-planed educational system. There are references to lekhasala (pathasala) where co-education was prevalent (94.27,105.131). Students join these pathasalas after taking a diksa under a guru. The teachers were generally Brahmin and brilliant scholars well versed in various arts, sciences, four Vedas, six angas, eighteen scripts and other sastras (15.2,22.4,76.3,102.47-48). All these subjects were taught. There are references to one hundred five vidyas (97.76-79) and carasastra (138.43). Students of different intellectual state are divided under categories such an ekasanstha, dvisanstha, trisanstha and catusanstha and their seat arrangements were made accordingly(157.18-28). The first category of students grasped the teacher's teaching fast and transferred this knowledge to all (157.20-28). It seems the students' strength under a teacher was limited. In Vatagrama one teacher had only four disciples under him (157.19-28). We hear of a teacher losing his temper and hitting his disciple with his leg after being failed to bring the lesson home to him (22.8-10). The teachers used to conduct a practical test at the end of their teaching (76.17-26). The students studied in the house of the teacher" (157.20) and at the end of their education, they used to pay gurudaksina (157.28). There are references to intellectual debates (vada) held on religious topics. The ladies could also participate there. (11.40,12.7,93.212). These debates were held in the presence of common public (76.120-27). Varanasi was considered to be the best

161 seat of learning. The best among the scholars came here to participate in such debates (93.212). During such debates, the tactics of pramana, naya md viksepa were used to refute the argument (11.40). Sometimes such debates led to violence (11.49). The kings were giving much emphasis on the education of their children. King Virasena was so much concerned about his son's learning that he inquired about it through a letter even when he was away from the place (23.7,24.7). Most probably kings appointed independent teachers for their sons in the palace (23.2. 24.7-11). The teachers were treated with much honour. We hear of king Vasupala issuing instruction to the palace officials to treat the family teacher with extreme regards. He asked to provide him a golden seat (svarnasana) and a goldvessel (savrnapatra) (24.16). Family Life: From Harisena's narration we know about the family-life in the contemporary society. We know about couples leading happy lives with mutual love (64.5) while some others had lives full of chaos because of the difference in their attitudes, and understanding (No.55.235; 102.73-78: 54.25). We have the instance of a pious husband giving religious teaching to his wife who later on renounced the mundane life. (90.2). We hear of a village-head dividing the property between his two wives being fed up with their constant quarrelling (21.7). We have several instances of couples

162 fighting because of their two different religious inclinations (55.235-236). We come across a lady having misunderstanding with her husband and getting out of her house with her ornaments. She became a victim to the thieves in the forest (102.73-73). We come across several cases of re-marriage and divorce which have been included in another section i.e. marriage (85.19, 86.5-8, 150.52,126.125-130). Similarly often misunderstanding cropped up between the parents and their children (69.13). The son of a Sresthin was going astray and repeatedly caught red-handed by the royal security officials. The Sresthin got a warning from the king. He considered his son to be (Kuladusana) for his family and drove him out of his house (69.13). It was unbearable for an orthodox Brahmin priest to see his daughter inclined towards Jainism. He gave a strong warning to her (126.69-70). There was the practice of having spiritual son (dharmaputra) (4.9). The new couples usually wanted male-child (73.1,150.52) (putrajanmabhilasinah). We know about the hospitality extended towards the guests in a family. The guests were honoured with offering of flower, betel etc. (10.86, 68.13). A lot of care was taken for their reception. After their arrival the hosts washed their feet and hands (146.9-10). They were also gifted with clothes (69.25-26, 81.80). They were greeted with sweet and affectionate words (69.25-26). They were also offered perfume (gandha) and cream (anulepa) (81.80). Proper arrangements were made for their bath, food, drink and rest (33.40, 55.10).

Women: 163 From the Brihatkatha-Kosha we come to know about the status of women in the contemporary society. There are many references to highly learned ladies. The queen of Ujjayini is said to be well versed in various arts and sciences (cf.11.2,12.4,12.6,55.8,93.210-12,102.50,106.5,114.4). Bhadras and Sulasa, two brilliant daughters of a Brahmin move all around the kingdom and participate in Vadas (debates). It seems women enjoyed freedom of education. (93.210-212) Women enjoyed religious freedom also. They were busy in various religious activities (33.2-3). We have several instances of women taking diksa under female ascetics (46.185). They reached the pinnacle of spiritual success and became ideals for other women. (85.24; 90.5-7). Their achievements inspired others also to follow the suit. We even come across husbands and wives belonging to two different religions (54.25). References are there to so many ladies, morally degraded. Even some married ladies of good families were having illicit relationship with other men (c£ 60.39- 50,85.15-16,87.32-36). There are a number of instances of sex-related crimes. (12.2- 5,85.33). The role of wicked women is described often. We hear how a king who lost everything having fallen victim of his wicked wife (87.32.36).

164 Occupations held by women: The ladies adopted various means of livelihood. A Brahmin widow named Jayani did not remarry and worked as a messenger (dur?) after the demise of her husband. Later on she switched over to the business of collecting wood from the forest and selling it. (94.24-32) Ladies were working as murses (dhatri) in the harem (98.103). We hear of four separate dhatris appointed for specific works such as feeding milk to the child giving food, conducting bath and taking the child around for a walk (ramana) etc., (127.46-47). We hear of a lady named Priyangulatika working as a karmakari in a Sresthi's house. She was carrying water in pots from a river. This was her means of livelihood (106.46-50). We know about the condition of such lady servants from Priyangulatika's statement. They were not given much freedom and were always afraid of their masters (106.20). We hear of the daughter of a fisherman earning her livelihood carrying passenger, on her boat across the river. (108.20). Prostitution was another means of livelihood for poor ladies (93.80). Unmarried girls were under restrictions. They were not allowed to move in night. Girls moving out in late night are looked down upon. Sujyestha went out on some works and somehow could not return to the home till late in the night. She was too scared to face the public criticism. She decided not to return home and undertook diksa under a Jaina Mimi. (97.47; cf.97.112-114)

165 We hear of a kallala couple leaving their unmarried daughter at home alone and going out. (98.61-62). Ladies with some diseases like leprosy were not allowed to live in a residential area. Laksmimati suffering from the same was abandoned by her own relatives (108-18). Selling of women: There are also instances of selling of ladies. A woman left her home having misunderstanding with her husband. She was abducted by thieves and surrendered to a caravan (sarthavaha) in exchange of wealth. That caravan sold her to a Persian traveller (parasika)(102.73-78) At last she was released from him by her brother (102.85). We know about the social attitude towards women from the following verseSaparadhapi neha stri hantavya suddhabuddhibhih/ visudhayah vikalpastu garhitah strivadho yatah //(76,235) (The ladies found guilty of committing any crimes should not be given the death penalty.) Women devoted to their husbands (pativrata) were held in high esteem (85.54-55). Marriage: Marriage proposals were first coming from the side of bridegroom (30.7, 65.13, 67.9). Normally people of same status and commmity have relationship through

166 marriage (30.7, 47.7, 55.267, 60.32-33, 72.4, 86.4, 93.40, 72.4, 104.136-38). We hear of two Sresthin, very intimate friends deciding to get their children married. They took this decision before being blessed with children (55.259-260). Astrological significance of the day of the marriage was given much importance. To know the auspiciousness of the moment astrologers were consulted (12.111, 33.82, 57.376, 72,75). All categories of marriages were prevalent". In arranged marriages the girls also had a say even though parents were playing dominant roles in the negotiation. We come across instances of how girls expressed their own choices before their parents (55.74, 33.96). There are cases of elopements in case of the disapproval of their choices (33.48-51). In some cases, the boys and girls in love informed their wish for marriage to their parents and the parents promptly agreed and got them married (97.19-21). There are some references to kidnapping too. We hear of Harisena being kidnapped by Vegavati while he was asleep (33.87-99). Abhayakumara took away the princess Chelana secretly through a tunnel (suranga) to Rajagrhapura, of course with her consent (97.42-44). Sometimes marriage took place in exchange of a timely help. As per the prior assurance, King Devadaru got his daughters married to Rudra who helped him getting

167 back the kingdom of Tripura from the clutches of the enemy (97.131-132). In royal families, Svayamvara was prevalent. The princes of different states were assembled after an announcement made by the king in this regard. We have detailed description of svayamvara in the Brihatkatha-Kosha The princes of different states were sitting in a order on a stage, richly decorated with gems (manimanca). Conches were blown and the lady attendants were bringing the princess. She was selecting one of the princes as her husband (76.90). Sometimes such a way of selection led to a war initiated by the dissatisfied princes (127.235). We hear of a princess announcing that she would marry only that person who could defeat her in gandharva vidya (114.5). Some other kings conducted a Target-shooting contest called Chandrakavedha (43.8; 116.26-32). Whosoever won the contest was declared the bridegroom. In an arranged marriage, generally people considered character, appearance and knowledge. We hear of a Sresthins looking for a bridegroom who should be good in all these respect. Besides, he should be from a noble family and be a sravaka (65.15). Some prefer to have marriage relationships within their family relatives. The practice of marrying uncle's daughter was in practice (33.101,76.163, 93.38, 105.136-138, 126.125-130). The marriages between families of two different religions were not preferred (54.7-8). Still some cases of inter-religion marriage are referred to in the text (68.18). We hear of a husband and wife quarrelling day and night being a Saivate and a Jaina respectively(54.25, 55.235-236).

168 Dowry system: 10 ' Dowry system was in vogue" We hear of brides' fathers demanding enormous dowries (30.8-10). A father demands a gold statue of the size of his daughter when his nephew expressed his willingness to marry her (105.136-138). There is an interesting reference to a bride's father asking to give back the dowry after the death of his daughter. We find a minister offering on behalf of the king lot of wealth for the king's marriage with a Sresthin's daughter (112.106-108; c£ 70.59; 72.54). Remarriage and Divorce: We come across a typical case of remarriage and divorce. A Rastrakuja had two sons. The elder was offered by his uncle to marry his daughter. He did not accept and went abroad for trading. Hence the younger son of the Rastrakuta married her. Later when the elder son returned with abundance of wealth, his uncle got the same daughter married to him. The younger son was thus deserted. In course of time the new son-in-law i.e., the elder son of Rastrakuta divorced the girl. Being separated from both she had to suffer living in her father's house (126.125-130). We hear of Vasantatilka being divorced by her husband as she suffered from diseases (150.52). Subhadra is divorced by her husband because of her proud nature (86.5-8). Jinadatta being a barren (bandhya) was proposing her husband to remarry to be blessed with & son. As per suggestion he remarried (64.6-11,86.5-8), Polygamy was in vogue. A Sresthin is said to have eight wives (63.5, 21.7, 105.259). Kings were having many wives.

169 Prostitution 11 Even though prostitution was considered as one of the evils, still it was in practice. People formed groups / clubs (vitagosthi) and indulge in all seven evils (vyasana) including prostitution (93.50). We hear of the mother of a prostitute instructing her daughter to abandon Charudatta who had become poor (nirdahatyatam ayam putri carudatta dhanojjhitah 93.50). Even men with high moral sense lost control over themselves and fell prey to these prostitutes. Charudatta is an example. It is said that coming in contact with Vasantasena he lost sixteen crores of gold coins and all ornaments of his wife in twelve years** (93.47-48). 12 Vasantasena is said to be expert in captivating the minds through her beauty and gestures (cittacoranadaksa, havabhavavilasini, vibhramanvita) (93.46). Another prostitute is described as a trap to capture the passionate (kamilokabandhanayaikavagura) (10.5). Some prostitutes were rich and leading a good life. They had so many servants in the brothel¯¯ (93.58). .13 The cities: A detailed description of cities is found in the stories of the Brihatkatha-Kosha The cities were very beautiful with colossus white buildings, temples, markets and shops. The cities were surrounded with parikha and beautified with marvellous gopura. Those were also surrounded with huge compound walls (prakara). Ponds, gardens, artificial forests, enhanced the beauty of the cities. Canopies and banners were posted all

170 14 around the cities (1.13, 3.2, 11.4, 19.21-22, 19.51-53, 61.32, 78.197, 78.213, 93.168, 269, 94.2, 97.162, 908.44, 55, 96, 138.13). In case of villages, the ponds were located at the end. Those are said to be paved with stones and equipped with steps (sopana) (61.32). Castes and tribes: Al Beruni in his work Castes and Race in India, mentions that there were sixteen castes the four well-known ones, five semi-untouchables and seven untouchables, but the actual number of castes and sub-castes was more than sixteen. 15 Kalhana describes sixty four castes" In the Brihatkatha-Kosha, we hear of following castes and tribes : Dombas or Dumbas: Dombas are mentioned among despised class in the Jaina texts. They are mentioned in Mahabharata and Rajatarangini. It was a caste of degraded musicians 16 and may be regarded as representing early inhabitants of north India. In the Brihatkatha-Kosha they are described as living on skin works (19.17) and snake-charming (27.16). Pana Reference is there to a part of a village (pataka) where only Pana resided. It seems they were known for rearing goats, sheep etc. (73.75, 74.47). Sometimes the

171 words pana and domba are used alternatively in the text (19.28). Professor A.N.Upadhye translates these two words as outcastes (candala)". Mleccha (gavasana-33.34, candala-31.3-4): 18 In the story no. 27 the thieves are mentioned as mlecchas. In many stories, mleccha refers to men of an outcaste race. They are described as Punlinda** (cruelminded hunter) (76.90). Bhilla Bhilla was a pre-aryan race inhabiting the Vindhyas, Satpura and the Satmala or Ajanta hills. The Bhills were the chief of the large group of tribes that one time held most of the country now distributed among the provinces of Mewar, Malwa, 19 Khandesh and Gujurat¹. In the Brihatkatha-Kosha references are there to the villages of wild tribes (bhillapalli) (33.25, 55.9, 58.8-11, 106.250). These Bhillapallis were situated in the dense forests away from the cities and described to be very fertile (suphalaprada). These villages were governed by heads known as pallinathas (55.7). Cilataka: They were known by the name cilaya and avada. They resided in north and possessed a large number of conches, seats, vehicles, slaves, cattle, gold and silver. They were rich, arrogant, powerful, fiery, and proficient in the art of fighting. They 20

172 are said to have fought with Bharata and defeated his forces. From the text Brihatkatha-Kosha we know them to be kirata tribe who lived on hunting (58.26). Brahmins and Sudras: 21 The Brahmins were the head of the social organisation devoted to learning (94.9-10; 93.210-212; 102 (4).2; 102. 47-48) and self-discipline. Leading a life of poverty they were patronised by kings. We hear of a place called Vagaradesa. The word vagara meaning a Brahmin scholar suggests that it was a place full of Brahmin scholars. In the text Brihatkatha-Kosha we find Somasarma, a Brahmin scholar and a resident of this Vagaradesa, coming to Mathura to accept Jainadiksa (2.3). Brahmins are referred as doing their sixfold duties (sat-karma) 22 (80.6). The social organisation of Brahmins was distinguished by gotra and vedic sakas (65.29) which were of fundamental importance in matters relating to inheritance and marriage etc. These gotras and sakhas are mentioned in all most all donative records of this period (700-1200 AD). On their basis Brahmanas are differentiated one from another 23 Ladies from Brahmin family are also referred to as devoted to the study of sastras (93.210-212; 102.47-48). References are there to Brahmins going to distance 24 places for trading (16.5-10). We find Supratistha, a Brahmin and a follower of Bhagavata religion residing in a matha. He practised dhyana, adhyayana, tapas, and attained merits (19.45). We hear of a Brahmin upadhyaya taking Jaina diksa under a Muni and attaining spiritual success (22.14). Unbearable poverty led Somadatta, a Brahmin, to renounce the world (65.61). We hear of a Brahmin selling

173 25 his seven sons to get rid of poverty" (63.91) The Brahmins and the Tapasvins were given ten types of danas (66.22). Besides teachership, the Brahmins held the portfolios of ministers (55.38; 56.281; 81.75) and priests (46.113; 60.37; 78.91) in the royal court 26 The Brahmins were disciplinarians and considered taking food in the house of a Sudra as lokaviruddha and smrtiviruddha (31.9-12). We hear of a liquor-vendor arranging the preparation food for his Brahmin guests in a Brahmin family (31.17-19). Of course references are there to Brahmins who were indisciplined and involved in seven evils (saptavayasanas) (59.6). Sudras were considered disqualified for listening to dharmakatha and performing vratas (31.9-12). Settlement of disputes: Whenever disputes between two or more persons or groups broke out, the Visistas interfered and solved the problem. They were probably the oldest in age and respectable residents of the place. In the text they are also referred as vrddha (30.23) 27 and varsiyan (30.25). Decoration on floor. The practice of making ornamental decorations on the floor with rice-powder (krtaramgavalicayam) at the entry of the houses was in vogue. Even now this practice is seen in South Indian villages. In the text Brihatkatha-Kosha, Kanchipuram is referred in this context (55.49).

174 Cases of suicide: There are two references to cases of suicide (60.135, 81.96). In both the cases, ladies have figured. Both committed suicide by hanging themselves. In both the cases, the reason was the extreme fear of the royal punishment for their particular fault. Rumour. Rumours often grab the cities and villages. We hear of a rumour spreading in the city with regard to the illicit relationship of queen Rohini with her own son (88.3). Announcement: In order to give publicity to some important events, functions and celebrations, proper announcements were made through beating drums (93.214). Dying the blanket: We hear of a peculiar method of dying the blanket. We find a Persian traveller sucking blood from a lady through jaluka and using the same blood for dying the blanket 28 (102.82). Moral Decay: If we clearly analyse Harisena's narration of events in different stories, we shall have a glimpse of the gradual erosion of moral values in the society. We hear of

175 so many immoral activities like thefts, murder, robbery illicit-relationships and corruption in political circle etc. (15.2-3, 45.17-18, 50.17, 82.3, 87.15, 98.27). We hear of Agnimitra having illicit relationship with the wife of his teacher. Being instigated by her he killed his teacher too. A merchant killed the child of another businessman to take away all the precious ornaments possessed by him. After the murder he put his body into a khadda and covered it with a blanket. There are a number of references to many more such incidents which present before us the picture of a society, morally decayed. Diseases and their cure: There are references to several types of diseases attacking the people. Some of them were curable while some others were incurable. Some of the diseases referred to in the Brihatkatha-Kosha are noted below, Dagh ajvara: It was an ailment related to the mind. It was caused due to an excessive longing for anything (10.8). The patient had high temperature in his body. Ksay avyadhi: This disease is said to be caused due to food-poisoning (24.31).

176 Vita: It caused joint pains. One oil called laksapakatailam was prescribed by the physician to give the patient relief from pain (102.89). Ambarakustha (udumbarakustha also): This was a serious disease and probably incurable. People suffering from the disease were looked down upon and not allowed to be in any residential area (126.37). Kaccuhu kandu: This skin disease is referred to in the text-Brihatkatha-Kosha without much details. This is called scabies in English. It creates severe itching and wounds on the skin (150,4), kacakamal adosa: It is an aye-ailment. For its cure, the physicians prescribed some herbals juice (ausadhirasa): Odour of body: One perfumed oil specially prepared was prescribed for eradication of bodyodour (12.97). Reference to another such deodorant is available in the Brihatkatha-Kosha (81.106). Laksapaka oil, mentioned earlier ensured brilliance to the skin (102.90,98). Murccha (senselessness): To bring the unconscious people to normalcy sandal-wood water (candanavari) was used (14.23, 55.196).

177 Believer: People believed in the existence of ghosts (75.5). They had also the notion that after death a person remains in the form of a spirit (vyantara) (60.135). Besides this, they believed in the existence of so many superhuman beings such as devas, carana, khetas, vidyadharas (98.181). The Jainas believed that we cannot conceal our actions both good and bad in spite of the secrecy maintained. There is no place where nobody looks at us. (sa pradeso na kopyasti yasmin kopi na pasyati) (78.58). It was a common belief that the fate of a girl after marriage is shaped according to the fate of her husband (30.18). People believed in omen (Sakunas and apasakunas). The sound of an owl on the left side is considered inauspicious particularly during a journey (30.20-22). Noticing a naked Jaina monk while setting out on a journey was avoided by nonJainas (55.293). Certain dreams seen in the late night (pascima prahara) were considered as inauspicious. To prevent the evil impacts of such dreams, people were advised to conduct a sacrifice as a part of santikarma (71.11). We hear of a Brahmin burning the samudrika sastras after noticing a naked Pravrajika possessing all good laksanas (to be a king) but begging alms. Articles: Kandapata · a curtain (8.19) (85.59) gonika - a bag or a sack (11.77) putika sarava - · a cup, dish made of leaves for taking rice etc. (12.86) - a cup, vessel, dish (12.85)

178 charjjika - a basket (15.6) bhandaka - a vessel for keeping milk etc. (21.22) vattaka - a cup (55.71-72, 116.43, 131.7) pittaraka a casket (55.284) kumbha - a pot (76.43), 102.29,33 kuta hatta kataha - - - a pot (66.95) a casket (72.89) a utensil for cooking meat etc. (73.107) lauhapanjara - a iron-cage to keep (73.117) tula - ■ (73.144) nisanga - a leather bag (73.147) bhasra a leather bag where arrows are kept (73.192) sikkaka - make of ropes to keep the pots hanging from the roof (93.99) tumbaka - ground (93.99) karapalika - · a clay-vessel used by monks (98.76) tamrakumbha - copper jar (105.34) rajatapatra - · silver vessel (105.34) svarnapatra - gold vessel (105.32) colika a cradle like mechanism of thick garment for children (131.30) vipanci " a musical instrument (112.139) astapadamayapatta (22.31-34) kambala • - a blanket (45.25) -a place for sleeping (46.156) mancaka lauhasalakika - iron nails (50.16)

179 satakambika karapravarana uttariya kapatadvitaya lakuta - (used to remove the mud from the feet) (55.72) - (60.7) - (60.96) doors (two folded) (60.147, 102.60) - a club (62.32,63.218) - (68.40) upana chatrika - (68.40) kuddala - an implement for digging (81.50) chatra · umbrella (87.3-7) vitanaka - canopy (87.3-7) karpasa - cotton (93.95) ratnakambala - (106.142) svanamamkitamanjusika - (106.142) angula - (102.71) mukura/manidarpana mirror (106.8) svarnasaiaka karavala - golden comb (127.6) - (11.47) karavali (66.92) khadga (93.153) capa (108.79) midgara (108.79) asi (108.79) pasa (108.79) cakra (108.79)

musala tomara naraca kamsala mardala 180 • (116.20) (124.10) (124.10) (12.139) (12.139) Religious conditions Muni samgha: In the Brihatkatha-Kosha we have references to munisamghas. A munisamgha was headed by a ganendra or ganadhipa (95.3-6). He had lot of responsibilities. He had a close watch on his disciples and maintained discipline amongst them. We come across the great efforts of a head to bring his derailed disciples to the right track (81.91-100). He led the team of scholars to all places and participated in religious discourse. He also inspired people to lead a pious life and attain spiritual success. We hear of many people being transformed after listening to the talk of these ganadhipas (95.5). We hear of Mimi Sudharma coming to a city with his five hundred disciples. The king took diksa under him after renouncing the kingdom 961.10-15). The head of a samgha used to take disciplinary actions in case of a violation of the code of conduct. For indisciplined behaviour, Srutasagara was ordered by his guru to quit the samgha and remain in kayotsarga. He carried out the command and returned back to the samgha being faultless obviously due to his performance of religions austerities (11.44).

181 Munis: In the Brihatkatha-Kosha we know the details about the Jaina Munis and their life. We find Mimi Varisena to be endowed with a number of divine virtues like sacrifice, patience, tapas, truth, strength, celibacy and charmfulness (10.103). Munis are described as absolutely free from desires (nisprha) (27.79). Munis never sticked to one place. They moved all around and gave religious talk. We hear of Muni Sudharma moving with his five hundred disciples (61.10). After coming to a city usually they stayed in some temples outside city. The kings, his royal employees and subjects took care of them and listened to their spiritual talk. Many were influenced by their talk had renouncing the world (11.4-65). We come across the description of a Muni in the story No.73. He is described as the abode of tapas. With his hands raised up, eyes fixed on the nose, standing under a Ashoka tree, he was appearing to be dharma himself (73.121-122). They were performing different austerities in different seasons (66.34-35). We hear of Hindu Mimis possessing pancakurca, jata, chatri, kusasana, kundika yajnopavita, paduka and ganetri (rosary) (96.44-45; 68.40). Munis were the moral guide for the common people. They were imparting the knowledge of truth (76.52). We hear of a Muni adopting an interesting way to correct a thief (59.12-13). The head of a Muni samgha was known as ganendra or ganadhipa.

182 They had the wonderful capability to turn even the most cruel and immoral people and 2º bring them to right path (95.3). Munis had the access to the royal harem (98.99). Instances of Munis returning back to worldly life are found in the Brihatkatha-Kosha (10.105; 80.23; 94.32; 98.103). King Yasodhara and his two sons renounced the palace and went for tapas. The third son of the king took over the kingship. Unfortunately he died from smakebite. Ministers went to the forest and requested the eldest son of the king, now a tapasvi to come back and take over the kingship till he was blessed with a son. He accepted their request and came back to the palace (46.52-64, c£ 78.127). We hear of kings patronising religious activities. King Harisena made Jinarca of gold and gem and Jinavesma all around the city (33.149, cf 56.3-6). They were also very much concerned about the health of the Munis (29.3-10). Vihara, Matha, Tirth asthana: We find references to viharas where Bauddhabhikkus reside (12.96). We hear of bhagavatamatha (19.48), parivrajamatha (55.32), pancastupa (12.132), tirthasthana (65.23; 76.195), siddhadhamacaitya (65.23, 76.195). The pilgrimage centres of different regions were attracting devotees throughout the year (78.4-5, 55.43). We hear of a Brahmin minister named Somasurma going for Gangasnana all the way from Kanchipuram (55.40). Probably he was travelling on foot (55.43).

183 Religions talk (prava cana): Munis used to come along with their disciples and stay outside the city usually in temples, caves, udyanavana (11, 95.5). They delivered religious talk and advised the people to move on the righteous path. We hear of the king and his royal employees also listening to the discourse. They could also solve their queries. Many were moved with the speech of Munis and leading absolutely a different kind of life. We hear of Nagadatta remaining in Pratima outside a temple after undergoing a total transformation due to the impact of the spiritual talk of a Muni (47 .9). The Munis were very talented. Through the narration of interesting stories, they gave moral teachings and explained the religious concepts. The style of narration and the language was so appealing that even the common people were influenced and resorting to pravajya (51.3-17, 95.5). Religious Debate: Religious debates were held amongst the scholars. We hear of Sutasagara, a Jaina Muni, and Bali, a Hindu Minster of king Sridhara, engrossed in such a debate. The minister requested the king to be the moderator (madhyastha). Srutasagara refuted all the views of Bali through pramana, naya and viskepa (11.20). During such debates sometimes some participants got agitated and violent (11.56-66). In these debates even girls could participate. we hear of two young girls named Bhadra and Sulasa participating in such a debate held in Varanasi. They displayed their extraordinary brilliance and defeated all the scholars (vadin) (93.212).

184 The philosophical debate on whether soul and body are same or different is very interesting. The debate was between a Muni and a thief Both were demonstrating their extraordinary brilliance while putting forth their respective views. Sometimes the debate was in the form of questions and answers. Each one was citing examples (nidarsana) to establish his own proposition. The arguments went on for a long time and at last Muni made the thief answerless through his power of logic and reason. The thief was surprised to see his brilliance and prayed for his advice. Muni instructed him to follow the path of dharma (73.129-162). Usually such debates were held in the presence of public. We come across Narada and Parvata, the two classmates arguing on the exact meaning of the word ajah. Parvataka interpreted it to be ' a goat' and Narada considered it appropriate to explain nirvarairajairvandhyai meaning brihi (76.127). Without reaching at a solution they decided to argue before the king. The king listened to their debate and declared Narada to be the winner. He banished Parvata for his fault of wrongly interpreting the word and supporting the sacrifice of animals (pasubali) (786.120- 154). Causes of Remunciation: Frequent references are there to the kings and other classes of people renouncing the world and resorting to penance (tapas). The following were the causes of their sudden feeling of remunciation. Many of these reasons cited in the Brihatkatha-Kosha such

185 30 as seeing transitory clouds, grey hair seem to be fictitious. We have excluded them from our discussion here. Influence of dharmakatha: Often the narration of religious stories could create a feeling of distaste for worldly life. We hear of king Mahapadma resorting to tapas after listening to dharmakatha from Muni Srutasagara (4.67). Wife's attitude: A Sresthin wife was engrossed in love affairs with a Brahmin. After knowing this, Sresthin felt disgusted and renounced the world (56.109, c£ .57.271). Unpleasant incident: In a svayamvara, the prince Madhupingala was not chosen by the princess and this made him frustrated. He lost interest in the worldly affairs and renounced the palace to accept diksa (76.194-195 cf. 101.7). Sivasarma being publicly humiliated by his elder brother also resorted to ascetic life (80.7). Death of relatives and friends also led people to monkhood (94.13, 101.7). Fear of public criticisma : Sujyestha went out of her house and could not return till the late night. She was too scared to face the public criticism. She decided not to return and resorted to tapas (97.47).

186 Knowledge about the previous birth: A person after knowing about his past life from a Muni, got scared of the present worldly sufferings and developed mahavairagya (105.255, 129.35-40). Diksa: After renouncing the world one has to take diksa under a Muni. It is said to be helpful in crossing the ocean of worldly sufferings (sansararnavatarini (59.31-32)) or in getting out of the well of worldly sufferings (sansarakupasampatahasta lambanadharini 4.67) and destroying the actions (karmavicchedakarini 4.67). Women were taking diksa under female ascetics called arjika 46.185; 55.227; 97.76-79). Before and after taking diksa one has to maintain certain discipline. Those are- • all sorts of external and internal attachment or possessiveness should be given up • bahyabhyantarasangatyaga (56.33; 97.29-30). the sense organs should be tamed and made calm. • discipline in taking food must be maintained. One has to give up honey, meat, wine and pancumbara (46.70-71; 66.76-71; 97.94). Before giving diksa the guru examined the disciple properly. After knowing his fitness, he gave him diksa (2.5-6). While taking diksa the aspirants had to observe some vows (46.70-71; 66.70-71). The aspirant used to circumambulate around the guru three times and then offered salutation (57.579). The guru had also to be pure in mind and body while giving diksa (2.5-6; 78.259 also). During a diksa, he used to

187 write namah siddham and ask the disciple to pronounce it (2.5-6). It was held in temples or pilgrimage centres (2.5-6; 78.259). After taking diksa, the aspirant had to read eleven aigas (97.76-79). We hear of a king along with his queens and other lady inmates of his harem taking diksd independently under male and female ascetics respectively. (46.185 and 55.227). A thief somehow realised his mistake, blamed himself and requested a Muni to initiate him to tapas by giving diksa (59.31-32). Occult practices: References are there to several types of occult practices. We hear of people endowed with one hundred five types of vidya (97.76-79). Descriptions of akasagaminividya (the art of flying) (4.8) vaitalikavidya (102.12), jalastamvana vidya (the art of floating on water (19.4)), mahajalavidya (97.26), prajnaptividya (97.23) are found in the Brihatkatha-Kosha (See for details 19.4; 48.8; 60.13; 59.105;) We find a kapalika (102.12) practising vetalavidya on krsnacaturddasi. In the night he goes to a cremation ground with flowers, dhupa etc. He attained the vidya with the help of a dead body (64.42-46). The Kapalikas are said to be expert in many arts like vasikarana, uccatana, stambana, mohana etc. They also knew the use of magic collyrium (64.41). We hear of a Kapalika being used by a lady to kill her co-wife. The innocent lady was saved somehow due to the failure of the kapalika in utilising his vidya for this evil purpose (64.81).

188 Festivals: Several festivals throughout the year brought delight to the people. Some of them are referred in the Brihatkatha-Kosha without much details. Here is a note on those festivals. Festival of swinging (dolakar ohana); In spring it was celebrated. Unmarried girls used to sing songs and swing in cradle (12.99). Car-festival: On eighth day (astami) of bright fortnight (suklapaksa) of phalguna, car festival was held. The two queens of king Putimukha who were inclined to two different religions such as Jainism and Buddhism were arranging pulling of two independent chariots on this occasion (33.146). Both the queens had a confrontation which resulted in the destruction of the Buddha chariot (12.114-129). We hear of one group threatening the other after destroying the chariot pujabhangam jinendranam yah karisyati manavah / tasya pidam karisyamo vayam srnuta sajjanah // ( 12.142) We come across the description of such a conflict between Hindus and Jainas also. (story.33). It seems such religious conflicts were common those days. This car-festival was also known as astahnikamaha. The chariots were made in gold and richly decorated with gems etc. (12.130; 33.145) The pulling of chariot was accompanied by blowing of trumpet, conches, lute, flute etc. (12.132, 139;

189 31 33.146) Eminent artists were beating kamsala ( a bell metal) mrdanga, mardala (12.139). On this occasion special pujas were held and dramas were enacted (12.136,140). Kaumudimahotsav a: It seems, this festival was exclusively meant for ladies. On bright fortnight (suklapaksa) of kartika, the ladies used to assemble in the royal garden (pramadodyana) protected by royal guards. Males were not allowed to enter into the garden. The ladies passed the time in singing and dancing. The celebration commenced on astami and concluded on a full moon night (63.9-13, 108.10). 32 Prajan otsava We hear of a mahotsava being organised when a lady gets pregnant (106.183) On this occasion entertainment programmes were held (106.185). When she delivered a baby prajanotsava was held and she was presented with precious gifts by her husband (106.235). The whole surrounding was echoed with the auspicious sound of trumpet. (106.183-235). Rights: The people performed several rites which are noted below Namakarana The rite of naming the new born babies was held in temples. In case of the Jainas, a Jaina Muni was giving name 33 (60.29).

190 Purusavrata: A special rite called purusavrata is briefly referred in the story subhaga gopalakathanaka (60). No details are found in the story. The ladies used to remain under fasting till the worship of some clay statues were over (60.99). Munjabandhana: It was a practice among the Brahmins to tie the munja to their sons. In this function all Brahmins of the village were invited (126.14). Varsav ardahanadiv asa (rajy avrddky abhiseka); • People used to celebrate the birthday to wish a long, happy and prosperous life. In case of kings this was performed with much pump and ceremony. They were conducted a bath (abhiseka) with the use of golden pots. This was known as rajyavrddhyabhiseka or varsavardhanadivasa. All wished the growth and prosperity of the kingdom and a long life for the king (85.20-27). This was also known as samavardhasana ( samavardhapana) (57.571). Funeral rite: The dead bodies were decorated with costly flowers and garlands (30.29). Those were burnt in the cremation ground ³4. The bones were collected and dropped in the holy river Ganga (73.38-39).

191 Pija: mahamah ah : Special pujas were conducted to cure certain serious diseases. People had faith that they recovered from illness after such pujas. We hear of a king recovering from so many diseases by taking the finagandhodaka (water sanctified by the touch of Jina's feet) brought from a temple after a special puja conducted by a stavaka. These Jinapijas were held usually in Asadha, Kartika and Phalguna. During this occasion chariots were pulled. These pujas were also known as Jinamah. (33.2-3, 60.29) astahnika mah☎ and mahamaha (56.72, 60.29). Durgapuja: This puja was conducted by the head of the village (gramakuta). We hear of a village-head constructing a huge Durga temple adorned with flag and conducting special pijas once in six months. During this occasion animals were sacrificed Before the sacrifice, goats, buffaloes etc. were brought to the spot and offered garland and pistacarna (71.7-9). We hear of the village head instructing his son to continue the practice even after his death (71.12). Nagapuja: This puja is conducted by ladies. We hear of Nagasi and other girls participating in this puja (126.59).

192 Mangalasatkriya: We hear of merchants performing some pijas (mahgalasatkriya) to pray the Divine for their safe and smooth journey through the sea (78,.40-43). They also prayed to their respective presiding deities and Gods during dangerous circumstances faced in the deep sea (53.15-16). We find a lepakara starting his work i.e. making a statue of Parsvajinendra after having a prayer to the Jina as well as his teacher (guru). He sought their blessings for the successful completion of his work. He strictly avoided taking honey, meat, milk, ghee and sexual enjoyment till the work was done (20.14-19). Worship of Pativratas : Ladies devoted to their husbands (pativrata) were held in high esteem. We hear of some poor pativrata ladies being worshipped with incense, flowers and aksata. People had pradaksina around them and gifted them clothes, betel, gems and food. Prayer songs were also chanted (85.54-55). Kuladevata: Each family had a presiding deity known as kuladevata. Family members had faith and devotion in the deity. On various occasions special pujas were conducted before the kuladevata (73.11-19).

193 Sasanadevata: Each township had a presiding deity called Sasanadevata (64.65) or nagaradevi (66,94) or puradevata³ (64.67). Articles of Puja: In various types of worships (pujas), the following articles were used. They are frequently referred to in the text. gandha, gandhodaka, aksata, havis, dipa, tambula, dhupa, vastra,phala, abharana, puspa, candana, caru (a mixture of odana, mudga and ghrta), ksira, dugaha, gosirsa, ketu, bhrgara, kalasa, ghanta, kinkini, mukura, svastika, vimana, srikhanda, karpura, silaha, jalam, kurkuma, ajya, ghanasara, agaru. vitana, lambusa, dadhi, durva, arghyapatra, anya. Sacrifices { yajna) : In the Brihatkatha-Kosha we get a number of references to the conduct of various sacrifices for different purposes which are described below. By the order of a Hindu king so many yajnasalas were constructed and buffaloes and goats were sacrificed (11.106-108). This caused disturbances to Jaina Munis. In the city of Dharmapura, all attempts to keep the gopura erected went futile. The king and ministers considered it a bad omen. Ministers suggested the king to sacrifice some human beings at the spot (63.86).

194 We hear of a village-head (gramakuta) conducting Durgaphija and sacrificing there buffaloes, goats etc. (71.9-16, 76.220-246). We also bear of a king who saw a bad dream and was advised by his mother to sacrifice few creatures (jiva) before the family deity (kuladevata) to get rid of the evil impacts of the dream. The king and the queen sacrificed a duck made out of dough (pistanirmitakurkuta) (73.11-19; 73.243). Asv amedhayajna: A reference is there to the conduct of asvamedha sacrifice without much details (76.227). Matrmedha and pitrmedhayajna. There are references to these sacrifices but without much details (93.232). We do not have any evidence to substantiate these practices. It may be taken as fictions. Suvarnay ajna: We hear of a king conducting this yajna and distributing gold to the Brahmins. The Jaina saahus were striving hard to propagate against the sacrifice of living creatures (76.52-54). At several places we see Munis explaining the people about the evil result of violence against the jivas. We find Munis making vehement criticisms of sacrifices. The Jaina teachers imparted religious teachings to the people and advised them to abstain from such violent acts. We find a teacher adopting an interesting way of teaching the same. He gave goats to some of his disciples and asked them to kill them at a place where nobody could see the act. The disciples went with the goats and returned back without killing them They informed their teacher -

195 sa pradeso na kopyasti yasmin kopi na pasyati (76.58; cf 76.52,53, 54). At another place it is said that if the sacrifice of animals can bring us merits and lead us to heaven than why should not we sacrifice our father, mother, wife, son and other relatives (93.248-249). We hear of a Jaina king giving severe punishment to a person who interpreted the term aja as 'goat' (in stead of brihi which never germinate) and thereby supported animal sacrifice (76.154). Dana: The merits of dana (charity) are explained in 66th story of the Brihatkatha-Kosha In the text several types of danas are referred to. The Jainas practised aharadana, ausadhadana and sastradana (66.25; 66.66-67; 70.10). References are also there to the practice of godana, bhumidana, suvarnadana etc. by the Hindus (66.22). The Jainas considered gift of gold land and cow to be inferior to aharadana (offering of food) (66.53-58). It is also said that the gift of cow, land and food is useless unless these are given to Jainas (66.66-67). Religious conversion : A number of references to conversion of people from one religion to mother are found in the Brihatkatha-Kosha For example, we hear of a Buddhist minister who being influenced by the teachings of Jaina monks, converted himself to Jainism (46.93).

198 1. Manusmrt!, VIL S NOTES AND REFERENCES 2. Kautilya does not allow any dice play in the places other than those which were under the control of a royal officer. Arthasastra, III.20.1-2.; see for more details on the dice paly, p. 140. 3. See discussion on gosthi, A.P Jamkhedkar, p.109. The gosthis in ancient India were like modern associations or clubs devoted to the pursuit of different branches of arts and learning, in which people showed their efficiency and freely exchanged views on topics of their interests. The citizens also made the gosthis a means of their diversion by arranging varied programmes of artists. Sankara explains the gosthis as assembly wherein persons of common interest or of similar nature meet together and hold free discussion (samanavidyavittasilabuddhivayasamanuripai ralapai rekat rasanabandho gosthi).Vatsyayana mentions two kinds of gosthis, namely those of an edifying nature and others in which number of unexalted habits like gambling and drinking also found scope for indulgence. These gosthis were a regular feature of civic life. V.S.Agrawal refers to several kinds of gosthis such as kavyagosthi, nrtyagosthi, sangitagosthi and jalpagosthi. See The Deeds of Harsa pp.3,15. 4. Epigraphica Indica, vol.XTV, p.194; vol.XX, p.128; Indian Antiquary, XVIII, p.95; Vasudev Upadhyaya, p.43. 5. Vasudev Upadhyaya, p.44.

197 6. A.P.Jamkhedkar, p.73. 7. Hien Tsiang observes that members of the four castes marry within their respective castes, H.T. Watters, vol. L p.168; Vatsyayana upholds the union between the bride and bridegroom of the same varna, H.C. Chakaldhar, p.95. 8. The various types of marriages were brahma, daiva, arsa, prajapatya, asura, gandhara, raksasa, paisaca, Manavadharmasastra. IIL 20-24. Yajnavalkyasmrti, III.58-61; 9. In case the father or the relatives of a maiden failed to find a proper suitor, she was allowed to overlook their wish and choose her own husband (svayamvara), Yajnavalkyasmrti, III.64. This has been referred to in the epics Mahabharata Ramayana, and also in the Jaina canonical literature. In spite of the references to the svayambaras in the Jataka, R.M Mehta dose not think that such a custom prevailed in the contemporary period. According to him it had gone out of usage. though the ideal and charm of it remain for ever. However prevalence of such custom of svayambara even in the later period can be assumed on the basis of literary evidence, A.P.Jamkhedkar, p.117. 10. In ancient times dowry was known as donation, lover's gift, stridhana or kanyadana ( bridal gift), sulka, yautuka, and daskina. Bharata Manisa "Dowry system in ancient India", Prachijyoti, I, No.4, 1976, pp.28-31. 11. Kautilya's Arthasastra deals with the legal position of prostitutes, IL 27.

198 12. The amount of one thousand gold coins as the fees of courtezan was something like a poetic convention in Jaina literature, J.C. Jain, The Life in Ancient India as Depicted in Jaina Canons, p.164. 13. The prostitutes should live in the southern part of the city, Arthasastra II.4.11. 14. For more details see political condition - town planning, p. 120. 15. The king's primary duty was to uphold dharma. The study of the records of the period under review reveals that kings took special care to preserve the traditional division of society laid down by all the Smrtis (Manu. II). Vasudev Upadhyaya, pp. 14 and 24. 16. V.S. Agrawal, p.24. 17. According to Manu, Candalas were wandering tribes and had dogs and donkey as their only property, Manavadharmasastra, X 51. The Candalas are emumerated separately from the four classes, R.N. Mehta, p.245. 18. According to Kathasaritsagara (TV - 22) the kingdom of Pulindas was situated amidst the Vindhyas on the root which goes from Kausambi to Ujjayini, V.S. Agrawal, p. 24. 19. V.S.Agrawal, p.24. The Bhils (Bhillas) and Kiratas once lived in Rajaputana and its neighbourhood, particularly its hilly tracts is shown by instances from later Rajput history but

199 particularly by the means Bhillamala (modern Bhinmal). The first name occurs in Saindhava plates from Saurastra, M.R.Majumdar, Chronology of Gujurat, pp.259-265. 20. V.S.Agrawal, P.24. 21. Vasudev Upadhyaya, p. 25. 22. Manusmrti, L 88-90; Yajnavalkya, L 11.118-119. 23. Vasudev Upadhyaya, p.33. 24. Brahmanas took the profession of Ksatriya and Vaisya during 700-1200 AD also which were sanctioned by Smrti writers, ( Manu X.82-82) Vasudev Upadhyaya, pp.43-48. The Brahmins were the best merchants in the world and were the most truthful, Marco Polo, vol. II, p.350. 25. "The ideals before Brahmanas was poverty, forsaking the active pursuit of riches and cherishing cultural preservation and advancement", P.V.Kane, History of Dharmasastra, vol. I, p.110. Brahmins were the head of social organisation and devoted to learning and selfdiscipline. Leading a life of poverty they were patronised by a king, Vasudev Upadhyaya, p. 25. The Smritis lay down that it is the duty of the king to support Srotriyas, Manu VIL 134; Yajnavalkya, IIL 44.

200 26. Brahmanas held the position of minister during Pala age. A Brahmana called Garga was the minister of king Dharmapala (770 - 815 AD), Vasudev Upadhyaya, p.43. 27. MR.Majumdar, p. 174. 28. In Vasudevahindi also it is found, A.P.Jamkhedkar, p. 105. 29. Jainas have made a classification of the society into two distinct levels, the Munis and the Sravakas. This distinction had played an important part in preserving Jaina theory and practice of worship and making the society more compact. Jainism has survived through centuries the onslaughts of social and political influences of other communities. The Jainas are quite aware that there is division of functions between Munis and Sravakas. The Munis are to preach religion and to see that the Sravakas follow the Jaina practices of worship. The Sravakas have to support the Munis and follow their teaching in practice of worship and prayer. 30. Thanamgasutra enumerates ten causes of remunciation, p. 473; see the leading fiction motifs in Jaina stories, p. 30. 31. "The most important ceremony or festival was known as Rathayatra or Devayatra (E.L vol.XI, p. 33) of the deity in the early medieval period. Good many epigraphs of different dynasties record the grant to meet the expanses of this festive occasion which was very popular in Rajaputana and neighbouring regions.

201 Fa Hien (4th. AD.) stated that Pataliputra celebrated Rathayatra where Buddha icon was carried out. In the Chahamana record we have a lengthy description of the procession of deity (Devayatra) commencing on a particular occasion. The epigraph says that the people of the province participated in this celebration and courtesans attach to the temple of Gods also attended Devayatra with fine dress and music (E.I, vol.XI, p.57; Bhinmal inscription). Cash donation is recorded of forty dramas deposited for the festival of deity... It influenced other faiths. Jainas living in the Rajaputana changed their mind and initiated similar processions (as they called it) of their deities. We have no epigraphic evidence of similar following in Eastern Indian and when this idea of Rathayatra travelled to that side is difficult to see. In modern day we find this yatra being held at Puri. It may be suggested that Jainas when travelled to Orissa to visit Jaina caves near Bhubanesvara imparted the idea of Devayatra to the people of that area. . . Buddhist imitated the Hindus and Jainas in having the festival". Vasudev Upadhyaya, pp. 330 - 332. 32. cf. Mudraraksasa, Act III; R.N. Saletore, Life in Gupta Age, p. 163; A.P.Jamkhedkar, p. 108. 33. A.P.Jamkhedkar, p. 73. 34. The cremation ground was situated away from the city, Arthasastra II.4.21 35. For a discussion on Sasanadevata see Bloomfield, The Life and Stories of Parsvanatha, p. 167.