Chapter 4 - Brihatkatha-kosha study—Economic Condition

ECONOMIC CONDITION In the Brihatkatha-Kosha enough material is available to satisfy the well-known parameters of economic conditions such as production, consumption and exchange. Throughout the work we come across the description of cities, towns, and villages as filled with wealth and agricultural products (56.106; 71.2; 138.39; 139.46), adorned with Jaina temples (sanura jinayatana) many storeyed colossal white buildings (sitasaudha), markets (visikha), tanks (vapi), and gardens (arama 19.51-53; 56.259; 98.44; 98.96; 127.53; 138.13). Frequent references are there to many a type of occupations such as business in different commodities cultivation and cattle-rearing. We come across granaries all over the kingdom where agricultural products were preserved for safety as well as meeting exigencies of time (38.5; 93.3; 2 73.136). We hear of the use of various coins". References regarding the use of metals, gems, jewels, and various ornaments and articles studded with gems are abundantly found. We come across the generous, luxurious extravagant kings, their employees 3 ' various classes of businessmen and their precious belongings including their treasure houses (bhandarakosa 63.30; 78.90, 99; 87.3-9). We find a Sreathin's house decorated with golden replicas of deer, horse, elephant and yaksa (104.6-7).

130 130 This is all about the brighter side of economic scenario. Let us have a glance at its dark aspects. We hear of people stricken with poverty resorting to evil and mischievous means of earning such as cheating, theft, robbery, murder, prostitution, gambling, and so on. We come across poor and blind people living on alms". There is a reference to a part of a village (pataka) where only poor, beggars, and blind men were living (3.3). We hear about the natural calamities shattering the backbone of the kingdoms time and again (131.34,37,47; cf 146.4). We hear of the people of Krsipattana in the Daksinapatha starving due to severe famine. No rice was in the stock in any of the granaries. Similarly due to lack of rain, Ujjayini is said to be under severe famine for twelve years. The kingdom was devoid of crops and wealth. Everything was robbed by the king and the thieves. People migrated to other parts". 6 All these descriptions must not be neglected simply taking them as imaginary or fiction. They bear testimony to the prevailing financial conditions of the people and their advancement in trade, business and agriculture. It testifies the standard of living of the different sections of the society. If we carefully detect the facts from the fictions certainly, a clear picture of the contemporary economic conditions of the society will be revealed. Here is an attempt in this regard. Production: Agriculture: Farmers and their lands : In the Brihatkatha-Kosha, We find references to fields with different crops like yava (61.23) and gandhasali (60.19). There were also wells in the lands probably for irrigation

131 purposes (135.6). We hear of the farmers (lsetrapalaka 55.45), kisivala, ploughing the lands. (halena karsanam, langalena vilikhanam, langalena vyapayan 139.93,99; 107.4) Their wives carried curd-rice to the field (139.92), and the farmers returned after the day's hard work in the noon (139.93). References are there to the farmers, coming to the field with their oxen (ballvarda) whose faces were tied (141.2). Whip was used to control the oxen (107.5)". Agricultural Products: We come across several references to the agricultural products like sugarcane (gandakagandika 93.55), white mustard (siddharthaka 37.2), mustard(sarsapa 37.5), gram (canaka 76.33 ), wheat (godhuma 126.93 ), bean (masih 33.16), banana (kadali) coconut, mudgadali, brihi (24.34), cotton (93.65) etc. We come across the description of an orchard full of various plantations like grapes, betel-nut, betel, banana and coconut (31.18). Generally corns were kept in sack (palya) of various sizes (37.2). Granaries : We hear of granaries and small godown (kosthaka, kosthika, kostha 38.5; 93.3) set up for the preservation and safety of products. We hear of king Prajapala of Vinita asking his subjects to preserve all their rice in the royal granary when enemy attacks the kingdom. Accordingly the subjects carry all their crops to the granary and deposit them there. Probably the royal granaries were located at secret places. This is

132 why the enemy has to return back disappointed. After his departure, people were asked to take their respective deposits not touching others (38.5-6). Men of other Occupations: Fishermen. (matsika, dhivara) We get references to fishermen and their equipments for fishing. We hear of a fisherman selling fishes in the market (visikha 28.29-30). In Ekarathyapura, we come across the particular shops dealing with various kinds of fishes (28.32; 29.32-33). We also come across a village of fishermen on the bank of the river Sipra. (72.1). for catching fishes net (preksanam, jala 9.15; 9.7) and for keeping them caskets (pitaka) were used. There is also a reference to a dhivara busy in collecting pearls at a place where a river is joined with the ocean (105.61). So from all these details, it is known that fishing was accepted as a means of livelihood by some people. Potter ( kallala, kumbhakara) We come across potter and his wife engaged in preparation of pots (amapatra, bhanda 58.57,64). We hear of daughter of a potter being worried because the pots, freshly prepared and kept outside the house for drying, were about to be spoiled by the sudden raining (98.57). There is also reference to klins (apaka) where dried potteries were burnt (98.117). We come across a potter carrying bhandaka from one village to another and selling them to the ladies even on loans (120.2-5).

Snake charmer. 133 Particular communities like Pana (an out caste, candala) or Dumba ( a low caste person) were earning their bread from snake-charming. They used to entertain the people by playing with snakes (nagakrida 27.17). They were also saving the lives of victims of snake bite. They were capable of extracting poison with the help of mantras. Hence they were known as visaghatins or visada (27.32; 126.111-112). We hear of the snake charmers being rewarded with fees (paritostka) in the form of gold, villages, clephant, horses etc. for protecting the lives (27.32; 126.111-112). Physicians (vaidya or bhisak) The physicians offered their service and in exchange received fees (paritosika 10.89; 13.6; 29.5). At many places we hear of them being rewarded by the wealth, crops, gold etc. (13.15-18; 29.17). Milkmen: We hear of ladies dealing in milk, curd, and other milk products". They were known as Gopi. They were collecting these milk products from the Gokula and wondering from village to village to sell them. Probably some of these Gopis who were running large scale business in this field had to pay some proportion of their profit to the king. We hear of Nanda giving 1000 pots of ghee to the king (21.29-33).

134 Cattle-rearing : In the Brihatkatha-Kosha we get references to the rearing of cows, buffaloes, goats, sheeps, horses, elephants, camels. A detailed description regarding the rearing of cows is found in the story Jnanavahumanakathanaka (21.9-20). Ashoka, a village-head who is said to be an owner of lot of cows (anekagokulanayaka) used to present one thousand pots of ghee to the king every year (21.6-7). Besides kings were referred as having gokulas taken care by a gokulanatha (5.7). specially appointed for this purpose. A reference is there to a special type of food called vitalaka given to the cows (21.13). Besides, throughout the work we hear of mahisiparipalaka or pindara (60.8; 121.48), urnaka or chelikapalaka (73.81). sheep shepherd (uranika 74.9-10), cow herdsman (gopala or govatsaparipalaka (56.79-81; 60.4), horse keeper saptinayaka or asvapalaka (70.53; 105.312) and elephant driver (hastipaka or adhorana 33.65-66). 10 People who were working as shepherd or herdsman etc, were generally poor and living in cottages (60.560. They were taking the cows and others cattle to the pastures (kaccha) in the midst of dense forest (60.56). The owners of the cows and buffaloes were announcing through beating drums when they needed somebody to look after their cattle (70.21-23). Before their appointment, the terms and conditions were fixed. As we see Samudradatta was appointed as horse keeper (saptin@yaka or asvapalaka) with the condition that he would be given two horses after a period of three years (70.21-23) We hear of a Sresthin having a herd of buffaloes and two keepers (raksapalas) to look after them (121.5). We also come across a vahyali

135 where horses, elephants and camels were trained (127.52). At few places we get reference to the rearing of dogs and hens at home (73.113). Flower-seller (kacchika): There is a reference to selling of flower and garlands in the market (30.28-20). We hear of a Malika going to the villages for selling flowers (56.182). Probably this profession was confined to a particular community, Liquor-vendor ( kallala, saundha) We come across many times people resorting to the business of liquor. We hear of Purnabhadra, a sudra by caste becoming very rich by selling liquors(31.2). Painter (citrakara) We hear of a painter engaged in his citrasala. King once comes there, mistakes the paintings to be real ones (12.2; 12.14). Generally references are found to the paintings made on the floor paved with gems (manikuttimabhumi (78.4)) and (pata (55.193) Stone digger (oda) Some people who are skilful in digging tank, well etc. were called oda. They were using narrow spade (khanatauda) and spade (kuddalaka) to dig the earth (104.8-11). We hear of thousands of odas being rewarded by the king for digging a huge tank (104.8-11).

136 Mapaka: The heads of the villages were having some servants whose only work was to measure the rice etc. during the purchase. They were called mapaka. We hear of a state-head (rastrauda) purchasing crops (dhanya) from two merchants, while his mapaka was misappropriating in measurement by diverting the attention of the sellers through telling stories. Later on he was found guilty and punished by the king (126.114-117.). Sailor (Navika) Ferryman These people lived on carrying people across the sea or river by their boats (70.61; 108.20). We hear of a sailor demanding a price more than what was fixed before from a merchant in the midst of a deep sea (70.61). Goldsmith (suvarnakaral kalada) We hear of a goldsmith preparing a crown for the king. He was fixing various gems also in it (105.264). The kitavartahara of the queen could not be repaired by any goldsmith and at last an extraordinary goldsmith named Alasatkumar could do (153.9-10). Stone-specialist (drsavijnani, asmavijnani, slakutta 56.377,383,143) These people were skilled in precious stone works. They knew all details about various stones. We hear of a king asking a drsavijnani to remove a granthi from a jinasimhasana since it marred the beauty. But he explained to the king the possible damage it would cause to the whole structure. The king constructed three

137 (layana) through the stone workers (filakutta). The author refers to the implement called tankika, used by these stone workers (56th story). Lepakara¹¹: These people are said to be abode of arts (kaladhara). They prepared states out of clay. We hear of a king entrusting a Lepakara to make a pratima of Parsvajinedra Being dissatisfied with his work, he called another lepakara and warned him that he should accept the job if knew the science (vijnana) well. The artist assured him, remained under strict discipline regarding food etc. till the successful completion of the work. He was rewarded and honoured warmly by the king (20th. story). Dancers ( lankhika, varttika, nata, sailusa) : There is a reference to a rope dancer in the story Sivavarmaaviprakathanaka, We hear of his daughter, well versed in the art, was moving to towns presenting her dances on the rope (varatra). She was adorned with various ornaments. Trumpet (fur) was one of the instrument played during the performance. The dances were held in the mid-day (80th. story). We also hear of nata presenting dances in a sabha packed with audience in night (98.35). The dancer said to be endowed with havabhava, vilasa, vibhrama, and navanatyarasas. In the same context we come across a reference to theatre (preksa) (98th. story). As the words natapetaka and sailusa sangha (party of dancers) suggest, probably the dancers were moving to places in groups (98.9-11; 99.44).

138 Lady servant ( karmakari) · We hear of a woman worker of a Sresthin carrying water in pots from the river Yamuma (106.4-15). That was her only means of livelihood. Also when Sresthin Sagaradatta expired his wife resorted to bhrti to earn her livelihood (12.82). Barber ( napita) We find reference to a barber who was doing nakhakarma of the princess (81.36-37). Washerman (rajaka) The author refers to a washerman without giving much details (108.12). Traveller ( desika) Some people were moving from place to place in search of some means of livelihood. For example Samudradatta came as a labourer from another city and worked as horse keeper (saptinayaka) in Palasakutagrama. He is mentioned in the story as a desika (70.53). Hunter: A particular class of people mostly living in the forest like savaras or kirata were resorting to hunting to earn their livelihood. We hear of a savara presenting the

139 tusk and gems of elephant to a Sresthin (78.145-146). We come across people going to forest and killing ram (mendhraka 26.106-107). Vegetable-seller. ( sakanika) We hear of a person selling vegetables and purchasing his desired commodities with the money he earned (127.27). Wood-seller: We come across people going to forest for hunting as well as collecting wood (126.106-107). Two poor men in Ujjayini were earning their livelihood by bringing wood from the forest and selling them (149.2-3). Astrologer. ( naimittika) 12 13 Generally people of this profession were Brahmins, well-versed in different Sastras including astrology, Sakunasastra etc. It seems many of them were patronised by the kings also 14 We see them often accompanying the king (57.285-287). At several places in the text we hear of them predicting future events and warning of the apasakuna. We see an astrologer predicting a Sresthin that he would be profited by a lakh of dinars (110.18). He was forecasting about a princess that the person marrying her would be the ruler of the earth (61.2). We hear of a king taking the consultation of a Naimittika in choosing his successor (55.16).

140 Teacher (upadhya): 15 This profession was also continued to confine Brahmins. The teachers were also wellversed in various sastra like six angas, four Vedas etc. (15.1). The teachers used to conduct various test to know the intelligence of their disciples (76.3-12). Gambler (dyutakara)" 16 • The stories such as dyutakhyanakakathanaka (No.39), pasakadyutakathanaka (No 36), kapardakadyutakathanaka (No.40) refer to gamblers, their style of playing and various technical facts in gambling. It seems some people considered it as means of livelihood and were very much addicted to it. 17 Prostitutes - ( ganika, parastri)" Poor women often resorted to prostitution to get rid of the sufferings of poverty. It was seen, the city harlots subdued the rich persons in the city by their beauty and grace. After extracting all their property, they discarded and trapped another. Even people from noble family were losing their sense of morality and falling prey to their strategy (93.52-55). Thieves, Robbers (taskara, dasyu, lampiksa), (10.15; 101.4; 138.32) People stricken with poverty resorted to some other means of livelihood like theft, robbery etc. We repeatedly hear of merchants, teachers, etc. being attacked, robbed up and some times killed on the way of their journey (101.4). These incidents took place mostly in the forests and oceans. Besides the thieves are said to be

141 equipped with so many supernatural powers. They were well-versed in caurasastra and knew many skills (138.43). A thief named Vidyuccara is said to be expert in using magical collyrium and pills (anjanasiddhi and gutikasiddhi, 10.4; 138.15), Similarly we hear of a thief being able to hypnotise (mohana) the guards and break the doors throwing mustard seeds (10.4-15). Another was said to be well-versed in sixtyfour arts and he could change his forms from time to time (138.3-6). Beggars. We hear of a pataka, (a part of the city), in Ujjayini where only people with miseries and poverty only lived (3.3). There in the market (hata), a poor blind man is referred as begging in a peculiar way. He was holding a mat on his teeth striking his chest frequently and singing lovely songs (3.5). We come across a vegetable-seller having no other way but resorting to begging as all his property were forcefully taken away by a security guard (127.76). Businessmen This class of people were mostly financially sound and had a good status in the society. In the Brihatkatha-Kosha, we come across three classes of businessman viz. (a) those who carried their goods for selling and wonder from place to place. For instance the two merchants dealing in wheat and gram (126.93) and another merchant coming all the way from daksinapatha to Ujjayini to sell eight dazzling ratnakambalas (126.223-224) (b) those who went to distance place across the sea. In this category we can take for example thirty-two merchants going abroad (101.2). (c) Those who were permanently settled at a place dealing in various commodities. For example, in

142 the story caurakathanaka a Sresthin sells ratnas etc. in his own shop (102 (9).13; c£107.16-17). The businessmen who want to start their business at a new place had to seek the prior permission of the authority (55.203). We get acquainted with various classes of wealthy men in the story viravatikathanaka (No.87). The poet classifies and defines various cadres of wealthy men in the following way. a) Ibhya: It refers to that wealthy man whose vast mass of treasures when assembled at a place remain above the umbrellas held in the hand of his men. b) Vrsebhya: It refers to a wealthy man whose wealth when assembled at a place remain above the umbrellas held by the person sitting on the bull. c) Patakebhya: It refers to a rich man whose precious wealth when assembled will remain above all the dandas and chatras of the king put together at one place in an order. He should be also renowned and endowed with all virtues (87.3-9). It is a well-known fact that in all the ages businessmen are only concerned with their wealth and it makes them very much mean-minded. After the death of his daughter, Sresthin Purnabhadra is asking the father of the bride-groom to return back

143 the wealth which he had given as dowry. We see the two Sresthins quarrelling when the bride is on the death-bed (30.15-22). Probably, some Sresthins were employed in the royal court to look after the 18 financial matters of the kingdom³. Such Sresthins are frequently referred to in the Brihatkatha-Kosha (55.97, 255 ). Even though sea-trading and business were carried on by people of a particular community, still we find instances of Brahmins undertaking this profession (16.2-6) 19. Sea-traders: We come across the merchant travelling across the sea to distant islands like Sinhaladvipa (93.6), Svarnadvipa, Yavanadvipa (No.93) 20 etc. venturing all sorts of dangerous situations and natural calamities. All though this sea-trading was mainly confined to the classes like Sresthins, reference is there to a Brahmin well-versed in Vedas and Vedargas resorting to sea-trading leaving his ancestral occupation (16.2- 6). Many of these traders are described as collecting the capital either by borrowing loans or carrying with them the precious ornaments and wealth of their family for their trade (16.2; 55.205). During their journey, they were carrying bhandas (55.205; 93.96) probably to carry capital in them in the form of coins and commodities and during return journey the treasures. Before starting their journey, the traders used to assemble at a place and chalk out a detailed programme of their journey i.e. where they should go and where and when they should remeet (70.17-19). The traders of a family were warmly received by their mother after their return from abroad (28.32).

144 The traders had to face lot of obstacles on the way both man-made and natural. They were attacked by thieves and were rendered penniless. Often they were killed resisting the miscreants" 21 • We come across the story of a group of merchants kidnapped by thieves (dasyus). All of them were killed except one (101. 4-6). We hear of some sarthavahas loosing their way in the dense forest on account of diversion from the usual root. This led to their enormous suffering due to hunger and thirst. References are there to the boats drawn into the deep sea while carrying them. Those boats are described as adorned with banners (93.72) which probably were considered as their emblems or trade marks or signs of auspiciousness. We hear of a Persian merchant 22 getting a woman in exchange of wealth (102.80) and it bears testimony to the commercial relation of our Indian traders with the Persians. Ordeals in the oceans In the story titled Carudattakathanaka (No 93), we get a clear picture of the sea-trade and various ordeals faced by the merchants. Carudatta took all the ornaments made of gold and gems of his wife and went for trading with his uncle to Giravarttapura of Utkaladesa which is said to be full of wealth. They purchased cotton paying lot of wealth but all that was burnt by wild fire. It was too much for a business man who was new to the business. Still Carudatta without loosing his heart proceeded towards East. He travelled on a horse through the land. The horse died on the way. Somehow he reached the city of Priyangu where he met his friend Surendra Datta and with him he started adventurous journey on a boat (vodhistha) to Yavanadvipa. From there they went from one island to another and at last got eight crores of gold coins.

145 On the way again misfortune shattered them. The boat carrying them and the wealth sank in the deep sea. With the support of a broken piece of the boat (vodhisthaphalaka), they crossed the ocean of Sindhu and reached Rajagrahapura. During his journey Carudatta had to halt at several places for rest. He stayed in the houses of his friends. While moving from one island to another in search of wealth, he changed boats seven times (93.63-78). Above is the story of a merchant even though fictitious which gives us some glimpses about the hardship that the merchants undertook on their quest for wealth. Exchange: Markets and Shops : 23 In the Brihatkatha-Kosha, the cities like Ujjayini, Saketa etc. are described as full of shops and markets (3.5; 35.21; 121. 23-24). The shops are referred as apana (76.42; 121.23-24), visikha (76.33; 109(9).13; 104.26-30; 107.16-17; 121.23-24), vithimarga (76.14) and the markets are known as hatta and kheta (93.5; 35.22). We have a reference to a market town at the foot of a mountain which is called Karvata" (17.6). In these shops and markets various objects like gold (104.26-30), ornaments (35.22), garlands (30.29), fishes (29.32-33; 76.33), grams (76.33-45), ghee (76.33- 45), gems (102(9).13), vegetables, ratnakambala were sold and tula was used for weighing. There are references to certain places which were renowned for dealing in particular commodities. For example, in the city of Girivartapura in Utkaladesa,

146 cotton was sold (93. 65). Similarly Palasakutagrama is referred as rich in crops and wealth and is said to be a business centre (71.2). From these descriptions, it seems these cities were in no way inferior in respect of business and trade to any of the modern cities. Dupers in the guise of assessors of quality : We hear about two customers, Vasu and Narada testing the quality of canakas before purchase. They were moving from shop to shop testing canakas and purposefully passing comments depreciating their quality. In this process, they consumed canakas to their heart's content and at last left the place without purchase (76.25-26). Bargaining At another shop, the same customers are heard of bargaining with the shopkeeper while purchasing ghee (76.36). Also at one place we hear of a sailor (navika) and a merchant busy negotiating the price (No.70). Medium of Exchange References are there to the use of various coins serving as the medium of exchange such as kapardaka (otherwise known as aksa 76.17,19,23) drama (Greek 24 silver coins drakhme" which is equal to four anas or six pence (104.13-30), dinar (Persian coins 63.89), takkara (14.26).

147 We hear of a poor Brahmin selling his son in exchange of one lakh dimar (63.89; 110.18; 143.42). We hear of a king presenting his queen one hundred takkara while declaring her as his mahadevi (14.26). Reference to a Sresthin's son purchasing ninety eight pieces of gold paying two dramas only. Wages, Fee ( paritosika ) Persons holding different occupations were duly rewarded for the labour they invested and services they rendered. Before doing the service a talk between the employer and employee took place. The terms and conditions were fixed. We hear of Samudradatta being agreed to work as a horse keeper on the assurance that he would be given two excellent horses after three years (70.21-23). References are there to physician vaidyas, snake-charmers, painters etc. being rewarded with handsome amount of fee for their services. The fee (paritosika) was in the form of both commodities and coins. We hear of a king offering gold, treasures, rice, village, city, elephant, horse to a snake-charmer and in exchange he wanted him to save the life of his son from snake-bite (27.33; 29.17). A hunter was given partosika by the king since he brought a crystal stone collected in the forest. Efficiency of Labour. The author tries to establish that unless we take care and give proper treatment to the servants and labourers, we can not run any business successfully. Efficiency of labour matters a lot in any business. As Nanda did not treat well the Gopas, she could

148 not get milk, ghee and curd even though she had large number of cows and obviously failed in her work (21.18-27). Loan-schemes: Many persons undertaking trade and commerce had to start their business on loans. We hear of a Brahmin named Somasarma borrowing loans from another rich person to start his sea-trade (16.6). Persons unable to repay their loans due to their failure in business were subjected to harassment by the givers. Somasarma being robbed up by the bandits on the way, decided to become a yatt, having no alternative before him to repay the loans. Once he happened to visit to his city and was caught by the person who had given him loans. He threatened Somasarma that unless he cleared all the debts, he would not be allowed to leave the place. Very soon the two were surrounded by a visista who gave the wonderful judgement to settle the dispute. The visista said that since he was a yati he should repay the loan selling his most precious wealth i.e. dharma. Helpless Somasarma requested Visnudatta to collect the wealth from his son who was capable of dealing with all those matters (16.15-18). Banking References are there to a number of bhandasalas constructed throughout the kingdom. Those are said to be full of wealth. Royal priest Sribhuti collected from the subjects gold and deposited them in these bhandasalas. People relying on him surrendered their excess wealth for saving. But the priest betrayed them. The

149 interesting story of a merchant being deceived by this priest attracts our attention. Sumitra deposits in Sribhuti's bhandasala five precious gems. After some days he died. His son came to withdraw the amount and the mischievous priest said to him "I don't know anything about your gems. Those might have been taken way by some pisaca". Later on truth came to light and the priest was prosecuted for committing fraud (78.50-88). Treasures, buried under the ground for safety: There are references to the wealth kept buried under the earth probably to ensure safety (78.57). We hear of Jinadatta burying a copper jar full of maniratnas etc. while his son saw this. Later on he took it out and buried somewhere else (102.100-102). We also hear of thieves burying their stolen wealth underneath the earth (138.4). Barter: The exchange of goods for goods is called barter. References to barter system are abundant. For example the king of Kausambi was fascinated by an extraordinary horse and purchased it from a merchant in exchange of a seven storeyed building and half of his kingdom (70.17). A merchant selling a piece of mani in exchange of his desired commodity (107.16-17). Partnership: We come across a businessman and a merchant carrying on their activities with perfect harmony and co-operation. Partnership in trade and commerce is referred

150 to in the text Brihatkatha-Kosha The traders were moving to distant islands in groups. We come across the instance of thirty two merchants travelling together (101.2). We hear of two brothers, Suramitra and Surachandra, having become poor with the death of their Sresthin-father endeavouring to recover from their poverty. They set out on trading to Sinhaladvipa and after twelve years they returned back with precious wealth (28.6- 7). A reference to the Sresthin whose close friendship is described by the poet as abhedya durijanai rapi' (not to be broken even by evil people) is worth mentioning (55.257). We also hear of Sagarabuddhi, a very rich merchant of Ujjayini, accompanied by other two merchant going to Daksinapatha" to seek his fortune. 25 Economic offences We come across several instances of crimes related to financial matters and punishments pronounced by the authority. References to fraud banking by the priest (78.50-88) and misappropriation in measuring the corns by a mapaka have been 26 " mentioned earlier. A stone-digger while digging a tank by the order of the king got a box full of gold pieces. Without informing the king he was selling them in the market. He was caught by the royal guards and taken to king's court (104.30). Sresthin Pinakagandha was imprisoned along with his family as he had purchased some pieces of gold from him (104.46). Consumption: From the Brihatkatha-Kosha, we come to know about the consumption of various food items, drinks, and use of precious ornaments and other articles. Already under political

151 condition the precious belongings of the royal family have been mentioned (see the chapter on political condition). All these details give us an idea about the life that the people were leading. It throws light on the economic condition of the society also. Here is a list of those food items, drinks, cosmetics and ornaments which are referred to in the Brihatkatha-Kosha It is worth mentioning that we are familiar to many of these items. Food: The author often describes the food to be endowed with six tastes (sadrasopeta 98.80; 105.32) In Jaina texts foods are classified into four varieties such as khajja - to be chewed, pejja - to be drunk, bhojja - to be eaten by swallowing, lejjha - to be eaten by licking 28 . 27 asokavartini (a sweet meat) (7.75; 56.228) kanjika (157.41) kasmira (68.13) khirika (preparation of milk and rice 10.71) mamsa (20.16-17) khajjaka (7.76) rohitaminapala - fried with ghee (73.70) khajjakanam khari. (7.76) khalvatakidali (mast) (husked pulse) (24.37) ajya - (24.35) guda (used in milk 7.65; 31.25) gharika - pulse ground and fried with clarified butter (7.75)

152 ghrtapuraka a sweet prepared of flour, milk, coconut, and ghee. (7.65; 24.27; 56.228; 64.33) tambula - (68.13; 24.28) dodhi - (taken with rice also 139.92) dadhiksiraravasanaka - (12.34) payasa - (3.28; 5.7) papapatrika a thin bread (7.75) pura (7.75) - purika - (7.75) manda - (7.68) mandaka - (7.75; 140.18) madhu (20.16-17) modaka - (72.95) laduka (21.15; 35.15; 72.97) bahuvidhabhakta- (7.75) varieties of cooked-rice referred to in the Brihatkatha-Kosha are as follows : dadhibhakta - (7.67 ; 139.920 mudgasamyuktodana with ghee (19.56). salibhakta 24.16) brihibhakta (24.34) firnabhakta - (66.8) cirakabhakta- (129.43) visanna - a food said to be specially prepared. This ensures beauty, nourishment, strength and energy (6.120).

153 Drinks: salanaka - (19.56) siktha - boiled rice (12.82; 72.37) sajatakra - (129.43; 127.43) takra said to be prepared from ripen kapittha having delicious perfume ensuring beauty and strength (17.3-4) dugdha - with manda and surkara (7.68), with guda (31.23) madya - (31.23) Cosmetics: anulepa -(33.18) kumkuma - (22.31) gandhodaka - (10.24) Ornaments : svanamamkitaguli ratna kankana - (139.52) 29 - (56.136) kitavarttahara - (153.7) kundala - (81.7) gajamuktahara (78.148) nupura (99.10) pancavarnamani - (69.48) mudrika - (87.38) sodasabharana - 72.58) More ornaments -see the chapter on political condition (royal possessions).

154 NOTES AND REFERENCES 1. Infra pp. 130 - 145. 2. Infra p. 146. 3. Supra. pp. 88-91; 97-112. 4. Infra. pp. 140 .- 141. 5. Infra. p.141. 6. A severe famine of similar type took place during 10th century AD in Gujurat, M.R. Majumdar, p.62. 7. Kautilya mentions that the people of Saurastra were best agriculturists. Arthasastra chapter xi; Indian Antiquary, viii. p.141; M.R.Majumdar, p. 173; also there is a well-known Gujurati proverb : uttam kseti madhyam vepar kantstha naukari. 8. The people of Gujurat used to have lot of milk-products, M.R.Majumdar, p. 173. 9. Ibid., 10. Kautilya's Arthasastra also refers to it, chapter II.30. 11. See H.C.Chakaldhar, Social Life in Ancient India, p. 134. Lepakaras are also referred to in other Jaina texts like Vasudevahindi of the same period. 12. In the inscriptions of 1200 AD, the astrologers have been mentioned along with the physicians, Vasudev Upadhyaya, The Socio-religious Conditions of North India (700-1200 AD), p. 47.

155 13. Vasudev Upadhyaya, pp.47-48. 14. Ibid 15. Ibid., p.44. 16. Kautilya does not allow my dice play in the places other than those which were under the control of a royal officer, Arthasastra IIL 20.1-2. 17. They took one thousand gold coins as the fees. It seems this description is a poetic convention in Jaina canonical literature, J.C.Jain, Ancient Life as Depicted in Jaina Cannons, p.164. 18. For details on the role of Sresthin in the administration of the king, see Motichandra, Sarthavaha (Hindi), p. 24. 19. Marco Polo says that Brahmins were the best merchants in the world and were truthful, Marco Polo, vol.II, p.350. Trade and agriculture were the chief means of livelihood for Vaisyas according to smrti Manavadharmasastra,190. writers, 20. Plates XI has the ship in sculpture, M. R. Majumdar, Cultural History of Gujurat preface, p.xvi. In medieval period the coastal areas of Gujurat remained within the network of maritime trade, Tapan Raychaudhury, The Cambridge Economic History of India, vol.I, p.45. See for details on different trade routes of that period, Motichandra, p.24; the people of Gujurat had the persistent maritime activity through the ages, Bodhayanasmrti mentions that that northerners of Gujurat, Saurastra, etc. were having frequent voyages, M.R.Majumdar, pp. 40,66,95; 174.

156 21. Trade routes and the danger of dacoity find mention in Atharvaveda - VIII too. But other Vedas are silent about it, K.S.Srinivasan, The Ethos of Indian Literature, p.21. 22. In early medieval century, the expansion of maritime activity took place in the eastern water of Indian ocean and China sea, Tapan Raychaudhury, opcit. vol.I, pp.126-127. 23. Supra. p. 119. 24. Gold and silver coins were found in north Gujurat (plates xvii), M.R.Majumdar, opcit, pp.54,74,173. 25. The main and broad geographical division of India known from the ancient times have been the two, viz, south and north. In the dynastic record of trans-Vindhya region the ruler is described as the Lord of the south (daksinapathapates satakarni, Epigraphica Indica vol.viii, p.42) and in the same way, the kings IndoGangatic plain were designated as the Lord of the north ( sakalottarapathesvara for Harsa, Epigraphica Indica, vol.v, p.202.), Uttarapatha was also the name of the road from Sravasti to Taksasila (Barua, Udayagiri and Khandagiri inscription) or from Bengal to Gandhara. ( Panini V.1.77) Vasudev Upadhyaya, opcit, pp.1-3. 26. Supra. p. 136. 27. Vasudevahindi a Cultural Study, p.130; Al Idrisi, the Arab traveller of the 11th century AD reports about the food of the people of Gujurat, particularly of Jainas,

157 M.R.Majumdar, p.206 and see for details on the foods of the people of Gujurat, p.170. 28. MR Majumdar, preface p.xvi. 29. Gold and copper rings from the layers dated to first to second century BC. are inscribed with the name of the owner. Specimens having names of both the owner and his father are also to be noticed. This practice seems to be have continued in later times. A copper ring engraved with letters in Gupta Brahmi characters and belonging to fifth century AD. has also been found, A. P.Jamkhedkar. p.128.