Chapter 3 - Brihatkatha-kosha study—Political Condition

BRHATKATHAKOSA: A CULTURAL STUDY As it is noted earlier, Jaina works particularly the story books of the Jainas are very much useful for the reconstruction of the socio-cultural life in ancient and medieval India. To quote Hertel "Characteristic of Indian narrative art are the narratives of the Jainas. They describe the life and the marmers of the Indian population in all its different classes, and in full accordance with reality. Hence Jaina narrative literature is amongst the huge mass of Indian literature, the most precious source not only of folklore in the most comprehensive sense of the word, but also of the history of Indian civilisation". While focusing on the socio-cultural importance of the Jaina works of particularly western India written during the medieval period (viz. the Brihatkatha-Kosha), Suniti Kumar Chatterjee says "The Jaina literature of western India Gujarat, Rajputna, and Malwa, during the medieval periods forms a quite distinctive thing in the expression of Indian culture, and by its extent and variety presents a veritable embrass de rechesse" In this commection, A.M. Ghatge's remarks is also noteworthy. He says "Their contribution to our knowledge lies in giving much needed information about the socio-cultural conditions of India in the middle ages. The society they represent, is, though formally one of Jain faith, is fairly typical of all the people in those times and can be taken such, without any serious mistake"³.

79 In course of the narration of the stories, the Jaina writers leave behind some clues from which we can draw certain conclusions about the socio-cultural history of India The Brihatkatha-Kosha being a dated work of a specified locality, the various bits of information of cultural interest have a definite chronological value though it can not be claimed that all of them belong only to the age and place of our author. It is obvious that the contemporary political, economic, social, and religious environment of the place have greatly influenced his writings. When we carefully detect the facts from fiction in his description we get a graphic account of the life of the people in medieval and ancient India. Since the date of the work is well-nigh certain one can correlate his data to a proper chronological context. As it is noted earlier, the author of the Brihatkatha-Kosha lived in Gujarat during tenth century AD. Many facts and events recorded by him are substantiated by the findings of the modern scholars of the cultural history of Gujurat*. References: 1. On the literature of the Svetambaras of Gujurat, pp.11f. 2. A Review of Jaina Singhi Series, the Brihatkatha-Kosha, p. 11 (A). 3. "Narrative literature in Jaina Maharastri" Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, vol.xvi, p.43. 4. See the notes and references at the end of each chapter.

PART II CHAPTER III

POLITICAL CONDITION The Brihatkatha-Kosha sheds welcome light on the political condition of the period. We are recording here the details. Kingship¹: As we know from the Brihatkatha-Kosha, monarchy was there all over. The author in course of narration of the stories recognises the good kings, appreciates them and enumerates their good qualities. From this we can have general ideas about an ideal king. The author describes certain kings as being endowed with a number of good qualities. According to the poet a king should be heroic and capable of subduing all his enemies (5.3; 9.2; 21.1:23.4; 30.1; 55.3). Besides he should be modest (12.77), religious(46.72), generous(46.71-72), affectionate towards his subjects(46.71-72), wellversed in various arts and sciences. ethics and other fields of knowledge(46.72; 60.1; 91.1). King Karkanda is advised by his father to be a king endowed with moral principles, devoted to the welfare of subjects and be free from any fear(56.336). Duties of a king": The duties of a king as laid down in many Jaina texts are also recognised by the author of the the Brihatkatha-Kosha Even though Harisena does not specifically deal with this matter any where, his opinion about an ideal king can be known from his description. The foremost task before a king was to look after the subjects' welfare and happiness. While appreciating the kings, the author uses so many adjectives such as

81 prajapalanatatpara(56.336), janatanandakari(97.36), lokavatsalysampanna(46.71- 72). A king had to look after all sections of the society and maintain proper balance of the three pursuits of life viz dharma, artha, and kama on their part. Throughout the work, we hear of the kings engaged in many religious activities. The king Harisena constructed statues of Jina (jinarca) in gold and gems and temples (finavesma) all around the city(33.149). King Vasupala constructed a temple (jinayatana) which was as high and beautiful as mountain(20.2). King Suryaprabha decided to construct a temple (jinalaya) and statues of gold and gem(56.326). King Devarati is heard of giving gifts to the chaste ladies and lames(85.46). We hear of a king named Vasudeva of Dvaravati visiting a jinayatana to enquire about the well-being of munis. There he saw a saint Jivandhara grown too weak. He immediately took his physician there who prepared special type of tablets (vataka) and distributed in each house of the sravakas. The munis took four handful of butter milk after taking the vattaka and attained good health and spirit (29.3-10). King Dhanada was a great patron of Jaina religion. He was telling religious stories even in the royal assembly. He also adorned all the villages and cities with temples (jinayatana 46.73-75). King Pakasasana made an announcement of non-violence (amarighosana) throughout his kingdom saying that anybody killing jivas would be hanged within eight days (74.6). A merchant violated this and was prosecuted(74.11). A Buddhist king named Jayasena of Sravasti not only converted to Jainism but also persuade all his feudal kings etc. to adopt Jainism. He decorated the whole kingdom with jinayatana. The king had to face a violent attack from a Buddhist king for the conversion and not changing his stand in spite of several warnings (156.7).

82 The king had to see the merchant carrying on their business smoothly in the kingdom. We hear of a group of merchants coming from other kingdoms and seeking his permission to start a business (55.203). The king encouraged persons wellversed in various arts by giving awards. Announcement was made regarding the award for particular achievements (128.5). He patronised the artists. We find a painter coming from a distant place to Vaisali and approaching the king for accommodation (55.184). The king should also be concerned with the will and woe of the people. We hear of the king being persuaded by his queen taking pity on a poor man who was collecting wood with much pain at night(105.3). Similarly people of particular hilly area were repeatedly attacked by tigers and the king had to go to the spot along with his soldiers (139.64). During an external aggression, we hear of a king asking his subjects to deposit their rice etc. to the royal granary for safety. Probably it was situated at a secret place. After the enemy's departure people were asked to take back their respective deposits(38.5-6). Besides protecting life and property of the people and maintaining law and order, he had to see that proper justice was given to the offenders. A detailed discussion on various crimes and punishment will be there in the following pages"

83 We come across several instances of kings indulging in luxuries and vices neglecting even their primary duties (91.4-14)4. King and his subjects: From Harisena's narration, we can have an idea about the relationship that prevailed between the king and his subjects. We hear of king Suyodhana being very much accessible to his subjects. As he returned from a foreign journey, the citizens came to see him. King enquired about their wellbeing saying "ksemam bhavatsamuhasya... "The subjects replied "kusalam sarvadaiva nah ..."(63.24-26) Even though king were endowed with enormous powers they were conscious of the public opinion. Often they were compelled to take a decision only because of the public criticism. We hear of the king Srenika sentencing his own son to death in spite of knowing that his son was innocent. It was because public opinion was against him. Later on he himself disclosed before his son who was saved miraculously by his spiritual merits - "maya janabhayat karttum prabandham maranam suta" (10.31) Similarly we hear of a king raising his sword against Nagadatta in spite of knowing that he was noble being (47.18).

84 The king if found to be immoral or negligent in his duties, was dethroned and punished. Instances are found in this regard. The feudal king banished the king, minister and the priest because of their injustice done to a guard (talara). Later they enthroned the prince (63.146-147). King Devarati was dethroned and banished from the city along with his queen for his too much indulgence in luxuries, attachment to wives and negligence in his duties. Later people enthroned the prince Jayasena as their king (85th story). The lower royal official like feudal kings, the ministers and mahattaras used to lead with the support of the public opinion in the impeachment process (85.6-8;115.13). Rumour against the royal family often grab the whole city. People often believed on those rumours to be true and raised their voice against royal families. We hear of the people of the city of Sauri suddenly developing a suspicion about the character of the queen. For that the queen had to go through an ordeal before the public to show that she was moral (88.3-9). We come across the subjects and the feudal kings of Rajagrha protesting against their king. We hear of the king taking all care to remove the misunderstanding from their minds. He gave clarification to the people and tried to justify his action (9.23). Consecration ( abhiseka) : According to a narration by the author of the Vasudevahindi, (a work in two parts written between 6th-10th AD.), the practice of abhi seka started with Ugabha (the first king of the people who had the divine sanction)". The abhiseka ceremony was a

85 sort of sanction given to the king by his subjects. As it is described in the Brihatkatha-Kosha, it was held on a day which was very much auspicious from the astrological point of view(55.20). All the royal officials were present(46.63-64). The person who was being enthroned had to sit on the throne placed in the asthanamandapa)(56.263-265). Harisena was made seated on a catuska decorated with gems of five colour. He was then sprinkled with holy water poured from the golden pots", kunkuma etc. applied garlanded and saluted. All hailed him victory (33.132-133). Trumpet and conch surcharged the whole atmosphere (33.131; 46.63-64). Mahattaras gave gifts of gold, silver, horse, elephant to the people ( 56.265). Then a turban (patta) was tied to his head (46. 63-64; 56.263-265). This consecration ceremony was also performed in case of the crown prince and Sreshin (60.34). While resorting to tapas, king Amitagati, Kanakaprabha etc. conducted consecration ceremony of their eldest son as king and the youngest son as prince (yuvaraja 93.176; 97.93-95). We also hear of the consecration ceremony of the chief queen (mahadevi). King Visakhadatta invited all his relatives, friends, kings and offered title the 'Mahadevi' to his most favourite queen Buddhimati (14.25). Succession: Kingship was hereditary in character. The usual practice was to crown the eldest son as the king and youngest as the prince (yuvaraja) (92.176). when a king died or wanted to abandon the throne to do tapas, he was handing over the kingdom. We hear of king Dantivahana surrendering his son to the ministers and feudal kings

86 before leaving the palace. He did this to train him in administration before the consecration ceremony. King Yasodhara having a feeling of renunciation gave the kingship to his eldest son. As he did not accept, he offered to the next son. But when he also refused, the youngest amongst all was given the offer. He agreed and ascended to the throne (56th story). King Yasodhara with his two sons went for tapas. The youngest son of the king was ruling the kingdom. Suddenly he died from snake bite. Due to lack of a successor, the ministers sent men to those munts (former king Yasodhara and his sons). After presuation the second son of the king came back to the palace and ruled over till he was blessed with a son (46.64). Similarly we come across several other instances of kings and princes returning to the palace discontinuing tapascarya (78.127). After the death of the administrator of the Simhala king Gaganasri brought his two grand sons. In order to select the best successor, he conducted a test. He asked the cook to serve the two boys visanna. The elder one took the food and apprehended that they would die as they had been given poisonous food. But the younger son interpreted it in a different way i.e. visitam annam. So he remained unagitated. Then the king selected him as the administrator of Sinhala (6.12-27). Going against the usual practice king Jinacandra gave the throne to that son who demonstrated more excellence in fighting. King Prasrenika in stead of choosing his son as his successor gave the throne to the second wife's son called Citataputra (55.93). When he became tyrannical and lawlessness spread every where, king Srenika, formerly the king dethroned him and himself took over the reign again (55.96-105).

87 In case of the lack of the successor after the death of the king, generally kings and ministers were releasing an elephant which had to select a successor by conducting the abhiseka. After being decorated and worshipped to the accompaniment of music the elephant moved in search of a successor to the throne. The royal officers would accept the person on whomsoever the elephant would pour water from golden pots. The person was brought to the palace. Then the royal officials were conducting another abhiseka and formally handing over the kingdom to him (56.254; 98.43-49). There is a saying "power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely". It happened in case of Chilataputra (55th story). Similarly Purnachandra who returned back from tapascarya was offered kingship. After ascending to the throne, he became extremely merciless and all his divine virtues disappeared (78.127). Royal Practices: Kings were keeping contact with the royal officials and the palace through messengers (lekhavaha) when they remained away from the capital. King Mahapadma after seeing a huge Jinalaya with one thousand pillars at a place wanted a similar construction in his own kingdom. From there itself he sent a letter to his minister instructing them to arrange one thousand pillars (24.9-10). Birthday of the king was also celebrated which was known as varsavardhana divasa. During this occasion golden pots were used to conduct his abhiseka. A long life for the king and prosperity for the kingdom was wished by all. For the prosperity

88 of the kingdom a rajyavrddhyabhiseka was conducted by the queen. She drew circle on the ground with flowers, unboiled rice etc., sang auspicious songs, conducted the abhiseka with golden pots on the king garlanded him and then hailed him victory (85. 30-31). There are many references to the kings going to sport garden (pramoda vana) along with the inmates of the royal harem (139.4). The kings are referred as going to the forest for hunting during their leisure (141.46). During suklapaksa of Karttika month kaumudimahotsava was held. The ladies went to pramodoavana and rejoiced. The garden was guarded by the royal guards and the king specifically made an announcement that any male person entering into the garden would be punished. Royal Possessions: Here is a list of possession of the king, queen and other royal officials which are referred to in the Brihatkatha-Kosha Muktahara: This is often referred at several places in the texts. Queen Chelana is said to possess a necklace of pearls which was illuminating all the places by its brilliance. It is also said to be very precious (10.6).

89 Svarnasana: We hear of kings honouring the people by offering golden seats and cloth (svarnasana svarnapatta). King Dhanasena honoured Supratistha, a Bhagavata Parivrajaka, by making him seated on a svarnaparta (19.42). As per the king's order a teacher (upadhyaya) was offered so many precious objects along with a golden seat (24.18). Catuska: This is also frequently referred to in the Brihatkatha-Kosha It is said to be adorned with gems of five colour. The victorious Harisena who defeated the enemy was made seated on a catuska and then abhiseka was conducted (33.132). Caturdasaratna: King Harisena is said to have fourteen gems (caturdasaratna). (33.137) Navanidhi: These are said to be the precious wealth of king Harisena (33.137). Sodasabhar anani : Queen Padmavati is said to be adorned with sixteen ornaments 56.159). Svarnakumbha : kings. We hear of golden pots used in the consecration ceremony (abhiseka) of Harivistaral Sinkavistara : The lion-seat (harivistara) was one of the signs of sovereignty". It is described to be made of gold and gems (66.94)

90 Manipaduka: (63.41). Ratnapaduka. : It is said to be brought from Uttarapatha and presented to minister by the king Jitasatru (81.81). Ratnadipa: The chambers of the king of Ujjayini were said to be illumined by ratnadipa. These may be lamps decorated with gems enhancing the beauty of palace (73.29). Gajamuktahara : A necklace made of gems of elephants, was one of the precious possessions of king Purnachandra (78.148). Mukuta: It was one of the royal insignias. We hear of mukuta being made with ruby gems (105.266). Kitav artahara : Vistara: (153.7) We hear of a king having a bed (vistara) made of elephant's tusk (78.147). Manidarpana: Svarnasalaka: (108.8) We hear of Srethinn's wife Jyamati combing hair with this (127.6). Manikundala: Ear ring decorated with gems. (19.79) Kansamanjusika: (106.142) Kankana: Bracelets. (35.22) Ratnakambala: A type of costly blanket.

91 It is repeatedly referred to in the text. We hear of a king purchasing it from a merchant coming from Uttarapatha (106.14; c£56.136; 126.223; 150.10). Bhandagara Bhandasala : We come across the store houses or treasure houses of kings, said to be full of wealth. All the precious treasure of the royal family were kept here under the supervision of a bhandagarika (78.90,99; 102 (9). 6. Sivika: Queens used to go out of the palace on palanquin (sivika) (60.53). Musical Instruments : Several musical instruments were also there in the palace. We hear of king's men going in search of suitable woods like sivani etc. for making a bheri (102 (7). 9). In a car festival arranged by the queen Urvila, lute, flute, trumpet, metal bell, (kamsala), mrdanga and mardala were used (12.139). Miscellaneous : Kings were also in the possession of large number of cows, horses and elephants. We hear of King Harisena surpassing any others in this respect (33.135,139). The horns of the cows were rendered a gold-coating (33.138). We also know about the richness of the king when the poet describes about the king's presentation of precious gifts to the Yacakas during their consecration ceremony or while honouring a person for his service (56.265; 27.32). We also know about these precious possessions being handed over to the princes by the kings during their

92 remmciation (78.124). Besides, we have reference to rearing of peacocks and dogs in the palaces (73.24-28). 10 Palace : In the Brihatkatha-Kosha we come across various description of palaces and their apartments. Those were decorated with gold gems (57.425; 118.4) etc. Many of them are said to have a number of storeys (.81 ;73.12). King Vasupala's many-storeyed (bahubhumika) palace attracts our attention. We hear about seven-storeyed palace (sapta-bhumika) of king Yasodhara. Some palaces are described as sky-creepers. Some are described as shinning like kasa flowers. Curtains in the palace enhanced its beauty (78.213). Apartment inside the Palace The royal palace comprised so many apartments, each meant for a particular purpose. Details follow: Asthan amandapa: It was the assembly hall where the king was sitting on his throne. (19.42; 35.19). This is said to have pillars decorated with gems (56.262). It was also known as sabha or sabhamandapa (25.17; 74.30; 66.83). King Mahapadma is described seated there and talking to ministers. Here the king passes the judgement for various crimes.

93 Bh of an amandapa: It was meant for king's dining (63.190). Dusy amandapa: (73.119) It is also referred in the Brihatkatha-Kosha without much details. Probably royal dress materials were kept there. Mantrasala: This was the place where king was consulting his ministers who are said to be wellversed in mantras (mantrakovida). King Magadha of Campa had three ministers and when he needed their consultation, came to mantrasala (57.32). Bhandarasla: It was king's treasure house. It is said to be full of gems and treasures (dravinas). It was also known as bhandasala and bhandagara (78.99). Antahpura: This was an important apartment of the palace where queens and their female attendants were living. Entrance to this part of the palace was restricted (67.21). Vapi: We hear of pools (vapi) inside the palace meant for the water-sport of the queens (102.(8).4-6).

94 Suranga: It seems palaces were having subterranean passages connecting some distant places. These were utilised by king and others for escaping secretly and safely during dangerous circumstances, arising out of enemies' attack, accident of fire etc. Of course we hear about the elopement of princess Celana with her lover through such a subterranean passage (97.4). Pramodayana. The palaces were also equipped with pleasure gardens. We hear of a king going there with all the inmates of the royal harem. (139.4). Bhumigha : We hear of under ground chambers in the palace (61.4) Inmates of the royal harem : The queens, princesses, their friends (sakhi) attendants, nurses (dhatrika), servants (cetika), hunchback (kubjika) and vamana were the inmates of the harem" 11 Entrance to the royal harem was very much restricted. We hear of Sacivas of the king having access to that apartment. They were sent by kings whenever they wanted to send any message from the court. We hear of Jaina munis coming for alms being allowed inside. We hear of a mint being attracted by the beauty of a princess while he was inside the palace for alms (98.99-109).

95 Only on the particular occasions queens and other inmates were coming out of the palace. We hear of the princess of Sindhunadadesa going for water sports to a lake. As queen Rohini was confined in the harem, she was unaware of the bad rumour spreading against her all around the kingdom. She heard about it late and turned upset. Then she came out of the palace to inquire for herself Here are the details about the inmates of harems. Mahadevi Kings are said to have many wives (91.2; 102 (8).3). One amongst all the queens who was most beloved to the king was given the title Mahadevi (55.229). At a special ceremony this special designation (padavt) was conferred by the king in the 12 presence of all feudal kings and queens (12.112). An auspicious patta" was tied to her on this occasion. She commanded respect from all other queens. She acted as the head of all the inmates of the harem (sarvantah puranayika 46.80). King was some times influenced by her in the administration. For example, from her palace Mahadevi Sundari saw a poor man collecting wood with much difficulty and pain at night, turned sympathetic and suggested the king thus: ahuyemam prabhate 'smai pradehi vividham dhanam/ yena daridrapakkena sprsyate yanna jatucit // 105.13. The king also took necessary steps in this regard.

Catika 96 They were attendants of the princess and queens. They were moving freely in and outside the harem. They acted as messenger of the queens and princess. We hear of a group of cetika who acted as the mediators in the development of the love-affairs between the princess Celana of Vaisali and a merchant (55.210). Dhatri: Dhatris were the lady servant of the queen and princess. They were much close and intimate to them. They are described by the post as abode of virtues (gunadhara 60.2), wellversed in all rules (vidhikovida), expert in knowing the states of mind (cittengitakovida 57.66), wellversed in all languages (sarvabhasasu kusala), expert in sastras (sarvasastrartha kovida 78.30). We hear about skilfulness of the dhatri Sumangala in apprehending the person having secret relationship with the princess (98.108). Dhatris were also in charge of bringing up the children (97.160). This is why they were termed as 13 lokapalankadharini (57.100). We hear of dhatri entrusted with independent works (127.46-47). Sukosalakumara was taken care by five dhatris. Sunanda was feeding milk, Nanda was for ramana, Sumati was giving various foods, Suprabha was conducting his bath and Mekhald was for decorating him with various ornaments (127.46-47).

Sakhi 97 We hear of these royal servants accompanying the princess in and outside the palace. We hear of princess Sulasa entering into the svayambara accompanied by her sakhis. (76.192) Kubjaka, Vamana: 14 They were also inside the harem rendering service to the inmates (73.52). Royal employees: Harisena Suri often names at a time a number of royal officials in different orders under various contexts from which we can have an idea about their real status in the court. Reference to those royal officials are collected and presented here as they are in the text. ⚫ samantamantrino mukhyantahpuramahattarah (52.23) ⚫ sacivasamantatalavargadipujitah (63.147) narasuro nrpo mantripurohitangpadayah (64.85) • nrpamahaSrethin mantripauradayah nrpah (70.117) • samantasacivanam hi talavargapurodasam samantaprakstinam ...(57.5) • samantamantrino mukhya mulavargah purodhasah (85.5) • atha samantasamghatah purohitamahattarah (85.42)

98 As it appears feudal kings, ministers, Srathins, purohitas etc. were very influential in the royal court. Here is a detailed discussion on these employees. Feudatories ( samanta) 15 The word samanta means 'being in all sides'. According to Prof Gopal Lallanji, towards fifth century, the word meant neighbouring kings. But later on the subordinate rulers were called Samantas. During the medieval period they were no longer a class of subordinate rulers rather a privileged nobles enjoying landed 16 property. The feudal kings referred to in the the Brihatkatha-Kosha seemed to be the subordinate rulers only. It has been also noticed that the author of the Brihatkatha-Kosha not only refers to the events contemporary to him but also of the past. In the Brihatkatha-Kosha the kings are referred as served by feudatories, (mahasamanta sevita) (63.47; 72.28). They were helping the king in administration remaining in 17 charge of certain areas. They were said to be in charge of a number of villages and were also known as cakradhipa (35.2). They were functioning according to the direction of the king and this is why the author sometimes called them as the servants of the king (55.3). They were appointed by the king. In case of their death, it was the king who selected the suitable successors (35.5). Even though this post was hereditary, the king had authority to take final decision in the appointment. If the person supposed to succeed was not competent enough and worthy, he was deprived of this opportunity. We hear of young Vasudeva not taking interest in his education of warfare which was generally imparted to the sons of feudatories. And as Vasudeva

99 lacked knowledge in the science of war, he could not succeed his father, a feudal king. As his father passed away all his property and privileges were taken away by the king and given to the person who was well-trained in this field (story No.35). We hear of feudatories often raising their voice against the king. We come across the feudal kings of Rajagrha of Magadha launching their protest out side the palace and the king taking all the care to remove their misunderstanding (9.23-32). Similarly as the pratyantavasi started rebellion (ksobha), the king of Pataliputra asked his minister to subdue them by giving wealth (143.7-9) Ministers (mantri) : A king had ministers headed by one chief minister (mahamantri) 18 to advise the king and assist in the administration (11.3; 56.281). They were generally very 19 learned, disciplined, sincere and mostly Brahmin by caste (52.38; 56.281; 81.75). They were expert in the science of statecraft. Harisena describes them as "gudhamantraprayogajna (139.60) ingitakovita (story No.11), mantrakovida (85.4)'. Subuddhi, the minister of Mathura is said to be endowed with mahamantra (63.4). We hear of the ministers of the king Pradyota, interpreting the significance of the king's dream. The saw a bull in his dream and his ministers were prompt to say that he had been a father (35.33). Ministers were acting as political advisers. There was a special chamber called mantrasala in the royal palace where the king used to meet them (57.32-39). The ministers also played an important role in the family life of the king. We hear of

100 the king Maghava consulting his ministers regarding the marriage of his daughters. The ministers suggested a svayambara and the king accepted the suggestion (85.4). The ministers acted as moral guides to the king. King after prohibiting the entry of any male into the pramododyana, he himself wanted to go there during Kaumudi mahotsava, a celebration specifically meant for ladies only. At that moment the ministers warned him of the severe damage it would bring to his reputation (63.18). The ministers could initiate the process of impeachment against an erring king. King Devarati of Saketa was negligent of his duties being too much attached to his queen. The ministers tried to bring him to right path. But the king did not listen to them. Seeing the king being overpowered by his enemy the ministers along with the royal officials dethroned him and tied the rajyapatta to his son called Jayasena (85.4). The ministers were the source of inspiration and encouragement for the kings during crucial moments. We hear of the minister Vali consoling the disappointed king Padma who was robbed by his enemies. He assured him that he could subdue the enemy by means of his intellect 'vasikaromi satrum svabuddhya dhiratam vraja' (11.74). Ministers were taking the responsibilities of the palace and its inmates when king moved to the battle-field with his senapati and the army. We hear of the king of the Hastinagapura sending messages and orders to the ministers and the queens on important matters when he was away from the palace (23.78; 24.10). It is worth mentioning here that the ministers were also subjected to punishment for their guilt. Ministers Sumati masterminded an evil plan against the Sresthin. When he was proved

101 to be guilty, king seized all his properties, humiliated him in public and banished him from the city (82,40). Priest (purohita): We do not get much information about this royal portfolio. From the Jaina texts contemporary to the present one we know that their main function was to advise the king on religious matters and act as the officiating priest in religious ceremonies like marriage etc. 20 As we know from the the Brihatkatha-Kosha, the priest were supposed to be intelligent Brahmins wellversed in Vedas (46.113; 60.37; 78.91). The post was hereditary. It seems they were very much close to the king. They were also concerned with the kings' personal problems. When the king Sagara gets disappointed after his proposal of marriage with Sulasa was rejected, it was Purohita who consoled him and carried out plans to get Sulasa for the king (76.175-181). Knowing that the priest was easily accessible and having a good influence over the king, Somadatta, a Brahmin approached him and asked for his help to have an appointment with the king for his engagement (varttanam) somewhere (12.8-9). The priests were also subjected to punishment for offences. We hear of Sribhuti being banished for committing fraud and cheating the people (78.87-88). Rajasrahin: We get very little information about the portfolio-rajasresthin. They were 21 acting as the financial advisers to the king. Their appointment was also hereditary

102 (105.206-157). At a special ceremony the rajasresthi portfolio was bestowed A parta was tied on his head. We hear of Medajja being appointed as per this tradition and when he leaves for tapas, he tied the turban to his son in front of the king (105.256-257). Sresthins are referred occasionally as having many wives. Sresthin Medajja is said to have thirty two wives. 22 Mahattara: Monier Williams dictionary gives us the meanings of the word Mahattara - the principal, chief, oldest person, the most respectable person, chamberlain, a courtier, the head of the villages. In the Brihatkatha-Kosha at some places it is used as a synonym for minister (56.265; 82.2,35). A.N. Upadhye in the list of vocabulary in his edition of the Brihatkatha-Kosha gives the meaning as a chief officer. In the Brihatkatha-Kosha also the word has been used in more than one sense. The Mahattara of Palasakutagrama appears to be the head of the same village. He is described as very wealthy. He was the owner of a lot of cows and was sending one thousand pots of ghee every year. Here the poet calls him a agrant also (21.4). It seems he had a very good social status as we hear of him marrying the daughter of a saciva (21.5).

103 It appears from the author's narration of their activities at some other places that they were very powerful officials/executives translating each order of the king into action. Here the word has probably been used in the sense of minister. The outstationed king Mahapadma sends a letter to the palace and immediately after the lekhaka's interpretation the Mahattaras in the kingdom plunge into action (25.19). Besides they were busy performing several other functions. We hear of the gold, silver, gems, horses, elephant etc. being given to the beggars(yacakas) during coronation of the king Karkanda (56.265). After the death of the king Devarati who was childless, the feudal kings (samanta), mahattara (here probably used in the sense of ministers) released the royal elephant to select a new successor to the king (85.39). Talara: In the Brihatkatha-Kosha the words like araksaka, dandapasaka, talavarga are alternatively used in the sense of a guard (63.29, 49, 66, 147; 74.3-8; 102 (9).7). The word 'talara' is the desya form for the talavarga. Harisena Suri uses both the these words in the context along with the other two i.e. araksaka and dandapasaka. In the dictionary of Monier Williams the word talaraksa is found with the meaning 'a body guard'. Talaras were the royal employees in charge of security of the life and property of the people and the maintenance of the law and order just like our modern police. Some were functioning as the body guards of the kings (35.21; 63.36). In case of any theft and other crimes, the king entrusted them to apprehend the culprit. We hear of them successfully apprehending the thieves who would be selling the stolen objects in the market etc. or hiding in some place. They were employing

104 various skill in doing so. We also hear of them to be always vigilant and bringing the crimes and the culprits to the notice of the king who was empowered to prosecute (47.11-12). They were described as very furious in appearance and creating a sense of fear amongst the unsocials (45.3). We hear of a talara taking a thief tying his hands while a drum was beaten to humiliate him in public (57.174-175). After a thief is caught by the talara, it was up to the king to punish or pardon him. The talaras had no authority to take a decision in this regard. We hear of a talara expressing his inability to release the thief as he had been arrested by an order of the king. Of course we hear of them being partial towards some people. The guards released the son of Sresthin even though he was caught red-handed (69.9). There are also reference to their misuse of power and atrocities on the common people (74.17-29). Gramakuta: (gramauda in desya and gauda in Kannada) : A gramakuta was the head of the village. He was directly responsible for the 23 welfare of his village. We hear of sudasa, a gramakuta of Palasagrama, constructing a big tank which was full of lotuses and echoed with sound of chakravaka birds. He also constructed huge temple adorned with flags where pratima of Durga was worshipped (71.5-7). They had a very good social status. At many places the poet describes them as wealthy persons and establishing relation through marriage 1 persons of high status (86.7; 71.3). We hear of Jinapalita, a gramakutta, giving his daughter in marriage to a king (135.141). with

105 These gramakutas were probably leading a simple life living in the village in spite of their abundant wealth. We hear of the daughter of the village head Jinapalita fetching drinking water from a distant well herself (135.7). Dutal Vacohara : We hear of kings exchanging their messages through messengers or ambassadors (vacohara or duta) (33.101,102,104). Before launching an attack over a kingdom, the kings used to send a *messenger' warning the opponent king either to meet their demand or be ready for the battle. Here are some instances. King Gnagadhara wanted to marry the daughter of king Indradhanu and sent a message. The messenger arrived in the palace of king Indradhanu and read the message: dehi mahyam sutam no cetsamgramaya bhava drutam'. King Indradhanu said to the duta : 'anaya svayamevayam grhitah kim karomyaham (33.102-105). Similarly the king of Angadesa wants the king of Kalinga to come with his army immediately. Being displeased with this the king of Kalinga replied to duta : Kim tvat prasadato rajyam kim gajah kim turangamah/ me rathah kim ca padatah yenaivam vakti tvat patih // (56.284-289) Generally unnecessary interference or supremacy of a foreign king led to oral fights through messengers resulting ultimately in a war. We also hear of the dutiful

106 messengers being humiliated and abused (khalikara) by the kings (56.290; cf. 67.11). To humiliate a king, his messenger was disfigured and sent back. Lekharaha There were also the royal messengers finctioning only inside the kingdom. Kings were keeping contact with their queens and royal employees through these lekhavahas (the carrier of letters) while being away from the palace. The usual practice was to tie the letter to his neck (23.14). Dvarapala: There are frequent references to dvaranala (69.93), also called dvari (55.186) and dauvarika (60.103; 85.58), guarding at the gates of the palaces. We hear of these dvarapalas standing at the seven gates of the palace of Champa (60.93). They were strictly instructed to check the persons and their belongings while entering to the palace. And form this even the employees of the royal harem were also not spared. We hear of dhatri, entering to the palace with some clay statues covered with cloth was checked and verified (60.94). We also know the story of the seven dvarapalas being deceived by the dhatri in an interesting way (60.93). It was the duty of the dvarapalas to inform the king about the arrival of any guest. The guest was asked to wait at the gate till the king gives permission (56.355; 85.58). Lekhaka He is said to be a kayastha (23.17; 25.15) holding the office of the clerk or reader. We hear of them reading and explaining the letters sent by the king while being

107 away from the palace (25.15,26). The letters were interpreted by them before all top royal officials and the king's relatives seated in a particular order (24.15-16). We come across the interesting story of a lekhaka being banished by the king as his misinterpretation of the later's letter led to the blindness of his son Sinha. The outstationed king Virasena instructed his ministers in a letter to educate his son named Sinha saying: 'sinhamadhyapaya'. But the lekhaka took it for ' sinhamandhapaya' meaning 'render Sinha blind' and the minister acted accordingly. The king prosecuted him after returning from his tour (23.31-32; c£24.38). Pathaka-Upadhyaya. There is a reference to a teacher who was responsible for the proper education of the princess. They were given high respect and nice treatment. King Vasupala of Vinita did not forget to write to his ministers to take special care of the pathaka (teacher) when he was out of the station. He asked them to serve him very delicious and nutritious foods every day (24.12-16). Dharmapathaka They acted as the legal advisers to the king, King took suggestion from vipras and dharmapathakas in the royal court with regard to the type of punishment that was to be given for different crimes (46.123-133). We hear of a parivrajaka eloping with the daughter of a priest who brought this to the notice of the king. By the king's order, talara arrested the parivrajaka and

108 presented him before the king. Then king asked the dharmapathaka and vipra about the proper punishment to be given. They suggested: Brahmanasya yatha raktam bhumyam na patati dhruvam / Tathayam maryatam bhupa dharmo hi manubhasitah // (146.132) Immediately as per their words, he was hanged from a dried tree in the fineral ground (146.133). Vandi: The kings were accompanied by a group of bards -(vandivrnda) who sang auspicious songs and hailed him victory during the king's victory over the enemies in the battle (108.112; 149.70; 33.129). We hear of them accompanying the king all the 24 time where ever he went ( 56.303). They exaggerated everything in their songs of praise for the kings and this is why the adjective 'asatyastutikarinah' is used for them (73.13). Prabhatika: Prabhutikas were there to blow the trumpet (turi) to convey the king royal employees and the people the end of the night. We hear of king Srenika keeping himself busy talking to his queen throughout the night and in the early morning the sound of the prabhatika's trumpet prompted him to leave the palace immediately and meet the ascetic Varisena (10.32-33).

109 Supakara : Mahanasika : Suda 25 We hear of the cooks supakaras in the royal palace. they were experiencing both praise and abuse from their masters for their work. We hear of the cook Brahmadatta facing the wrath of the king as he served the payasam too hot (52.4-5). On the other hand the cook of the king, Gargadhara, was rewarded for his excellent preparation of meat (78.199 cf. 91.16; 78.199; 115.6, 79; 148.3 ). Hastlpaka: We get references to elephant drivers termed by the author alternatively as 26 hastipaka, adhorana and rohaka" (33.65,66; 57.424). Subduing the royal elephant was considered as an act of bravery and strength. We hear of a king rewarding Arkakirti and Harisena as they skilfully subdued the royal elephant (rajahasti) defeating the elephant drivers. The soldiers with elephants in the royal army were also called rohaka. Vanapala : We do not get much details from the author about this royal employee. It seems they were looking after the forest and its valuable resources. Often the munis were coming to jinavesmas constructed in the forest. The vanapalas were informing the kings about their arrival (57.186-187). Then kings along with their family members were going there to do worship of the munis (57.137).

110 Udyan apala : The royal employees were in charge of the king's fruits - orchards. We hear of the huge mango-grove taken care by audyanapala who was specially appointed by the king, we also hear of him bringing fruits for the king (102 (6).7). Manipali: We hear of a manipali in the palace of the king Bhupala of Kausambi, he was conducting an enquiry about a missing gem (102 (10).8). Sadhanika: Besides the dharmapathakas, these royal employees were also assisting the king in legal matters. As we see, dharmapathakas suggested the king regarding the type of punishment to be given to a criminal where as these sadhanikas were establishing the charges of crimes against a criminal. The king was authorised to issue the order of punishment. We hear of a sadhanika establishing the charges of cheating and theft (asatyacorikavada) against a measurer(mapaka) of rice. Thereafter the king ordered for chopping of his tongue and hands before all the people (samastajanasaksikah) (126.116-117). Vaidya: King of Kashi is said to have a physician. We also hear of royal physicians in many stories. This post was hereditary. If the sons of the physicians were considered incompetent and not qualified, the king could appoint somebody else (102 (3). 3-4)

111 Pratihara: Pratiharas were there in the palaces to attend the kings' call. They were always 27 near the kings in the royal assembly" (91.5; 106.32). If the king wanted to send for somebody or convey some message to a somebody inside the palace, he relied on the prafihara standing in front of him (91.5; 106.32). They had close access to the harem. We hear of a pratihara entering into the private chamber of the king to inform him about the arrival of a sadhu (91.6-10). At that time the king was busy decorating the queen's face. In fact the king had instructed him earlier to inform him only in case of arrival of a sadhu otherwise he should not be disturbed (91.6). But he was so much engrossed in the affair with the queen that the dutiful partihara had to bear his wrath for the disturbance (91.12). Rantavijnani: Reference to a specialist in gems (ratnavijnanakovida) who was in the court of the king of Ujjayini is worth mentioning (153.2). Bhandagarika: Bhandaganikas were in charge of the royal treasure. The author has not given much details about this royal employee (143.10-11). Naimitikas: References were there to the royal astrologers (naimittika) who were consulted by the king on several occasions viz. during selection of suitable successor

112 to various posts, the marriage of princess, fixation of auspicious days for ascending to 28 the throne etc (57.1-9). Pallinatha: They were the heads of small villages of wild tribes existing in the forest (55.7). They were respecting the king very much. We hear how king Prasrenika was taken much care by the Pallinatha Yamadanda of Kandukaksiti as he was accidentally carried away to the forest by a horse (55.10). We also hear of a head of Bhil tribes (bhilladhipa) paying courtesy visit to the king (56.354-356). He informed the king about the location of a magnificent jinalaya in the forest (56.361). Bhattaputra: They were probably the lower officials like prafiharas. We hear of the king asking them to search and find out his teacher who was at some unknown place (22.23). Sarathi: In the caturangasena of the king, the soldiers with chariot were called the sarathi (56.301) We have references to kancuki (97.104) and rastrakuta ( rastrauda ) (126.95, 124) but without details.

Crime and Punishment: 113 As we infer from the narration of the poet, there was a systematic judiciary to administer justice in the kingdom. King was the supreme authority to prosecute or pardon a criminal. The royal judiciary comprised other members like dharmapathaka and sadhanika who assisted the king in judicial matters. This has been discussed in the following pages. The guards (talaras) were responsible for apprehending the culprits and bringing the crimes to the notice of the king. Various punishments were given for different crimes. Here are some instances. Murder: We hear of four ministers of Ujjayini being banished from the city for their attempt to murder a Jaina muni (11.56). Somasarma, the royal priest, was given the fivefold punishment (pancadanda) i.e. khararohana, pacavilvabandhana, pattanabhramana, khalikarana, svadesadapasarana; as he murdered a muni (56.209- 210). This five fold punishment have been repeatedly referred to in the Brihatkatha-Kosha Similarly for murdering a child, the poor merchant Vamana was punished (45.31). His properties were seized. He was disgraced (kalikarana) and banished from the city. Theft: For theft also several punishments were pronounced. The son of the Sresthin

114 was caught red-handed by the talaras. He was taken outside the city with his hands tied. A drum was beaten to humiliate him in public (57.174-176). Similarly a thief was caught while he was stealing the necklace of the queen. He was hanged on a Sulika(62.11-22). Sulikas were in the funeral ground and the culprit was taken there with hands tied Incompetence: A lekhaka's misinterpretation of the letter of the outstationed king led to the blindness of the young prince. For this he was made seated on an ass (khara) five vivlas were tied, taken around the city and finally banished from the city (23.25-32). Violation of code of conduct : A person going against the code of conduct of his community or religion was subjected to punishment. We hear of a parivrajaka, a follower of Bhagavata religion eloping with the daughter of a Srenthin being punished. He was hanged on the tree in the funeral ground with the suggestion of dharmapathakas and vipras (46.123- 133).Similarly Sivabhuti, a Brahmin, was banished from the city with the allegation that he was drinking liquor in a marriage party organised by a liquor-vendor (31.25- 31). Brand: Sribhuti, a priest, opened bhandasalas all around the kingdom and was collecting gold etc. from people. People relying on him deposited their excess wealth but the priest betrayed them. A person after the death of his father, went to withdraw

115 the amount deposited by his late father, the mischievous priest denied of accepting any amount from his father. Later truth came to light and the priest was banished (78.87- 88). Similarly a mapaka was skilfully measuring more corns distracting the minds of the sellers by telling stories. It was noticed and king ordered chopping up his tongue and hands in the presence of all people (126.115-117). Probably to humiliate the culprit and create awareness of the severity of punishment for such crimes, the prosecution were made in public. Violation of orders, rules and announcement : During particular occasion, the king of Varanasi made an announcement of nonkilling of animals or non-violence (amarighosana) for eight days. But a merchant addicted to non-vegetarian food could not resist his passion and killed a sheep. King ordered for his imprisonment in tied condition (69.9-11). A rich Sresthin was accused of hundred crimes. The king seized all his wealth (76.2-3). Without taking the royal permission a stone digger (odah) was selling gold pieces which he found while digging a tank as per the order of the king (104.30-46). He was caught by the guards and taken to the king's court. Of course the king somehow was convinced of his innocence but the Sresthin Pinakagandha who purchased from him was imprisoned (104.30-46).

116 During kaurudimahotsava, a festival particularly for ladies, an announcement was made that any male entering into the pramododyana, the place of the celebration would be sentenced to death. But later on the passionate king himself was about to violate this but was restrained by the minister (63.13). Religious offences : Probably the rulers who were the strict followers of Jainisism could not tolerate any body going against their religious tradition. We hear of two persons following Jainism being punished for killing animals. King ordered to throw them into a lake full of crocodiles (74.39). This may be fictitious but religious bias of kings were quite obvious. We hear of Parvataka being banished for interpreting the meaning of the word aja for ' a goat' and supporting the sacrifice of goats (76.154). Economic offences: It has been discussed under financial condition. General observation : Instances are available of the innocent people being punished because of the biased and whimsical judgement of the kings. We hear of the Brahmin named Sivabhuti attending the feast organised by his friend a liquor-vendor. He was drinking milk. The king's men without verifying the facts accused him of taking wine and by the order of the king he was disgraced beaten and banished from the city (31.25-31). King of Pataliputra suggested his minister to put down the rebellion of the neighbouring king

117 (pratyantavasibhupa) by distributing wealth. In course of the time the treasury went vacant by repeated attacks and the distribution of the wealth. The king without any proper thinking ordered for confining the innocent minister along with his family in a closed well (andhakupa) for eight years (143.14). Also references are there to kings reconsidering the judgement, already pronounced if the innocence of the accused is proved. The person or persons responsible for saving the innocent from punishment were rewarded. Surasena who was direct witness to an incident saved Datta from prosecution by providing a concrete evidence proving his innocence. King who had passed the sentence of death on the basis of an allegation of Datta's wife reversed his judgement and rewarded Surasena (87.28-43). Women were also subjected to severe punishment for committing crimes. For example, Sindhumati offending a Jaina muni was prosecuted. Her head was shaved, five vilvas were tied, placed on an ass, beaten and banished from the city. A drum was also beaten while she was taken out. (57.209-210). Of course we come across an exception. When a false allegation was made against Jinnadatta, king ordered for the arrest of her husband instead of her (64.64), And the royal officials were also not spared from prosecution as it is seen in the above discussion. Of course cases of favouritism and corruption in judiciary are referred. For example - the son of a Sresthin was caught several times red-handed while indulged in theft. But king released him because of his close-relationship with Sresthin. At last he warned Sresthin to prevent him otherwise he would have no other way but to prosecute (69.12; c£ 59.8).

118 We hear of Rajasrsethin assuring a culprit of later's release in case he marries his daughter. Sresthin was worried as nobody liked to marry his daughter. As soon as the culprit gave his consent to marry as per the assurance, Sresthin influenced the king and got him released (57.177-179). A Hindu king assured a thief of his release in case he would accept vrata from a Vipra (74.34-36). Also we hear of Buddhadasa giving enough wealth as bribe to the king to get his work done (68.52). We also come across many instances of king taking disciplinary action against their conscience only because of the public criticism (lokapavada 29 (10.21; 47.11- 18). It is worth mentioning that before the hearing of a case, the king administered the oath for telling the truth ( satyena sravitam krtva 65.83). As we saw, the visistas, sadhanika, dharmapathaka, pancakula, had also active roles in settling dispute and administration of justice. We heard a number of punishments given to the criminal. Amongst them, the pancadanda have been repeatedly referred to. Probably these pancadanda or five fold punishments were partially or at a time given to a criminal depending upon seriousness of a crime (11.139; 24.38; 57.209; 57.307; 106.116). 30 Division of a kingdom™ : To ensure convenience in administration a kingdom was divided and subdivided into parts each known by a particular name. We get reference to such a divisions and their respective names in the Brihatkatha-Kosha The author while introducing the

119 main characters in a story often gives the details of the places where they characters lived and incidents occurred. Also he referred to several types of settlement in course of his narration which are known by different names. From such details, we 31 know about the then conditions of the kingdoms and their units and sub-units. Here are certain examples from the Brihatkatha-Kosha i. kim khetam kharvatam nanvat pattanam putabhedanam/ ii. gramadikam na vidyate yenayasi madantikam// (17.6) grame pi nagare ghose madambe karvatadike / babhuva sakale loke harisena mayi katha // (33.151) iii. atha jambumati dvipa vasye bharatanamani/ iv. atraiva bharate ksetre jambudvipopalaksite/ visave gandhamalinyam vijayarddham purottamam// (78.222) ranajanapadakirne nanadhanasamanvite// (97.1-2) 32 The author of the Brihatkatha-Kosha also quotes from some other sources and defines the various units and sub-units of a kingdom in the story Sakatamunikathanakam (94.14-17) gramam brhdvrtim nunam nigadanti manisinah / salagopurasampannam nagaram paurasankulam //

120 nadyadrivestitam khetam karvatamadrina/ satain pancabhirakamam gramanam ca matambakam il pattanam ratnasambhutih sindhuvelasamavrtam/ dronamukhamabhispastam sannivesam nagopari // 94.14-16. We also come to know that people belonging to a particular caste or a tribe or a religious sect living in a particular area. The names Tapasapalli (33.41) Brahmanavasa (55.31), Bhillapalli (57.7), Andhalapataka (3.3), Panapataka (73.75), Matangapataka (73.111), suggest this fact. Town- planning: < Prof. V. S Agrawal says The art and architecture of a period inspire the poets of that period and strike their imagination to serve as model for his elaborate and minute description" 33 In the present work of Harisena, we find the truth of this statement. we come across detailed description of cities and amenities available there. It seems the cities were ideal in respect of town-planing and architectures. Here are the details : Beautification of cities: It seems much attention was paid towards the beautification of the cities. All cities are said to be adorned with rows of flags (19.21-22; 22.41; 51.2; 55.13; 57.270; 78.197; 118.2). The innumerable banners of the city are described as obstructing the

121 sun-rays. The cities were also decorated with arches (torana 106.150; 19.51-53) canopies (vitana 55.13) four ornamental gates (gopuradvara 19.21-22; 22.41; 51.2; 57.70; 118.2) and colourful cloths spread here and there (19.21). Besides these, the beauty of the cities were enhanced by gardens (arama) lake (sara) circular and oblong reservoir of water (vapi), river, temples, shops, markets etc (19.51-53; 56.59; 98.44; 98.96; 138.13). Palaces and mansions : The cities are repeatedly referred to as having palaces (prasada) and mansions (sauda). Those were probably in a row. Those are said to be coloured and whitewashed (19.21-22; 78.213; 93.168). The palaces of Ayodhya are said to be shining like kasa flowers (78.213). The buildings of the city created by muni Supratistha through his yogic power (purakarinividya) were looking as white as nectar (19.51- 53). Safety ensured: Ramparts (prakara 19.21-22; 63.82-86; 118.2) gopura and moat (parikha 19.21-22: 91.51-53) were around the cities to ensure safety and avoid fear of attack from the enemies 34 Amenities available : Shops: Large number of shops were there dealing in various commodities (56.59; 98.96 and 138.13).

122 Parks: Temples Reference to beautiful park are also found. (56.259; 98.96; 138.13). Temples were there where people could worship. (56.259; 98.96; 138.13). Cremation Ground : Vapi 35 It was situated out side the city. (56.259) Circular and oblong reservoir of water for the use of the people were constructed. Those are said to be at the end of the village and endowed with steps (sopana) and paved with stones (61.32). Udvanavana : The pleasure gardens were there where various celebration like Kaumudimahotsava were held and religious discourses took place (139.4)

123 NOTES AND REFERENCES 1. The Jaina tradition in agreement with the Buddhist and the Hindu tradition accepts kingship as a necessity arising out of decadence in moral value of the people, A.L.Basham, "Ancient Indian kingship" Indica, vol.L, No.2, p.119. 2. A king should channelise his activities through six attitudes such as peace (sandhi), war (vigraha), remaining encamped (asana) and marching (yana), • double deal (dvaidhibhava) and seeking protection from a more powerful king (samasraya), Arthasastra VIL 1.2. 3. See pp. 113 - 118. 4. A king should avoid seven vices such as drinking, dice, women, hunting, harsh tongue, cruelty, and unjust seizure, Manusmrti, VIL 51. 5. A.P Jamkhedkar, Vasudevahindi - A Cultural Study, p.14. 6. Sprinkling with water brought from various places like ponds, river, and various types of currents forms a part of the rajasiya ceremony described in Brahmanical literature, see Satapatha Brahmana (3.4.1-28).

124 7. The crown prince appears to have been at the head of the list of royal officials. He was highly educated and helped the king in general administration. Vasudev Upadhyaya, p.65. 8. Natyasastra, XXIV.33; Vasudevahindi - A Cultural Study, Chapter.I, p.14. 9. Bharata says that the gods and the kings should be shown as seated on sinhasana, see Natyasastra, Chapter XXII.215. 10. Palace architectures and other descriptions on palaces, see V.S. Agrawal, The Deeds of Harsha p.244. 11. Bharata gives a list of inmates of the royal harem. They were eighteen in number including queens of various grades, Natyasastra, XXIV.29-32. 12. The custom of wearing a fillet (patta) made of gold on the part of mahadevi or mahisi has been referred to in Varahamihira's Brhatsamhita, Chapter XXIV. 13. All these female servants had specific duties to discharge in the smooth running of the administration of the palace, Natyasastra, XXIV.44-64, 14. There were also kubjikas entrusted with the work of preparation and distribution of unguents, Natyasastra, XXIV.62 - 64. 15. The institution of Samanta belongs to Gupta civilisation which continued as an integral part of the polity of medieval period. This institution originated several centuries before Bana. Medieval literature is full of references to Samanta as an

125 active institution. The medieval polity may be said to be based on Samanta system. The origin of the institution probably goes to Kusana age. It is possible that the foreign emperors during saka rule were not able to maintain direct contact with people and hence took the help of intermediate rulers, appointed as samantas. Bana mentions various classes of samanta such as mahasamanta, aptasamanta, pradhanasamanta, satrmahasamanta, pratisamanta. The code of behaviour prescribed for the samantas included their presence in the royal Darbar from time to time and to render different kinds of service. See for further details The Deeds of Harsa, appendix II, p.256. 16. "Samanta, its varying significance in ancient India" Pachijyoti, 1963,pp.21-37, There was an increasing fragmentation and hereditarisation of local power under what has variously been termed "the samanta system or Indian feudalism", Tapan Ray Chaudhury, The Cambridge Ecomonic History of India, vol. I, p.46. From the ninth century to middle of tenth century AD. Guhillas occupied the position of feudatories of powerful pratihara empire, Vasudev Upadhyaya, p.13. 17. The near relations or kinsmen act as feudatories to the king and assisted him at the time of emergency, Vasudev Upadhyaya, p.65. 18. The word maha is used in many official titles in early medieval age, Ibid., p.45. 19. Ibid., p.49.

126 20. During 700 - 1200 AD, the priest found a place among the royal officials, Ibid., pp.45-46. 21. For details on the role of Sresthin in the administration of the king, see Motichandra, Sarthavaha, p.24. 22. Similarly lady servants called Mahattari were there in the palace to take care of the harem and to greet the king, Natyasastra, XXIV.58-59. 23. The village headman was the most important officer in the villages and all others are mentioned as subordinate to him in the Vallabhi inscriptions from Gujurat and Saurastra of the sixth seventh and eighth centuries. The plates mention the officers according to their grades and the usual order is rastrapati, visayapati, gramakuta, ayuktika, niyuktika, adhikarika, mahattaradina, samanujnapati, The arrangement of public fares, festivals and shows, the management of temple property and other matters were left to the villagers who managed everything under the guidance and supervision of village elders (gramavrddha), MR. Majumdar, pp. 173-174. 24. Bards accompanied the king in tours and wars, Vasudevahindi, IL 145. 25. According to Kantilya they were paid, Arthasastra, IL.27. 26. Hastipaka, adhorana are also referred to by Bana and Kautilya, for details see V.S Agrawal, p.160.

127 27. Bharata states that pratihara had to report to the king any work connected with sandhi and vigraha, Natyasastra, XXIV.59 60; pratiharas function as the • masters of palace routine and state decorum. Several pratiharas were governed by one mahapratihara. Above all mahapratiharas, one official called mahadauvarika remained, V.S Agrawal, P. 160. 28. In the inscription of 1200 AD. the astrologers have been mentioned along with the physicians, V. S. Agrawal, p. 47. 29. For details see p.83. 30. cf Sprigaramanjarikatha, p.77. MR.Majumdar records the division of a kingdom and says "The desa or country was usually divided for administrative purposes into divisions called mandalas i.e. district which was again subdivided into smaller portions called visaya. As we meet with in Gujurat inscriptions, a visaya consisted of a number of villages. The lowest administrative unit was the village. Cultural History of Gujurat, p.171. 31. cf Singaramanjarikatha, p. 83. 32. c£ Brhatkalpa, 2.1089 - 1090, p.342; Anuyogadvarasutra; Trilokaprajnapti Acaramgasutra, 1-8-6-3; 33. V. S. Agrawal, p.4.

128 34. Description of the gopuras of a city being equipped with defensive weapons is also to be met with in Sangam literature, The Tamils Eighteen Hundred years Ago, p.130; The excavations at Kausambi and Ujjayin have brought to light the existence of such ramparts (prakara) and moats (parikha), The Excavation at Kausambi, p.27 & pp.38-39; see similar description in other Jaina texts of the same period Vasudevahindi, I; B.B.Datta, Town Planing in Ancient India, pp.99-100. 35. Cremation ground was away from the city, Arthasastra, IL 11.4-21