Concept of Time in Sanskrit Grammar-Part I

CONCEPT OF TIME IN SAMSKRIT GRAMMAR

PART I

Paanini: Kaala is one of the Samskrit words that denote time in general. The word Kaala occurs in about 24 Sutras of Paanini. Paanini did not think it necessary to define time, as the meaning of that word was well-known even in his own Daya (cf Astadhyayi 1-2-57). A study of some of the Sutras can give us an idea of the concept of time according to Samskrit grammarians. (1) Sutra 2-2-5 permits compounding of words denotative of  time particulars with those denotative of measurables. So here time is considered as a measure or dimension. (2) Sutra 3-3-137 mentions divisions of time. (3) In the Sutra 2-3-64 time is treated as a substratum. (4) In Sutras 2-3-45 and 4-2-3 it is said to have contacts with stars. (5) According to Sutra 4-2-34 time is a deity also. The word “Maasika”, for example, means a ritual having “Maasa” (month) for its presiding deity. The word “Praavrishenya” means a ritual having rainy season for its presiding deity. (6) According to Sutra 3-1-48 the word “Haayana” meaning an year is derived from the root “ha” to abandon or to reach. So that which abandons or reaches objects is an year. Here time is conceived as moving. (7) Time is mainly of three divisions – past, present and future. Past is again of three kinds and future is of two kinds. Some other subtler divisions also are pointed out by Paanini.

Patanjali: (1) In his Mahabhashya commentary on Paanini’s Astaadhhyaayi, Patanjali expressed his views on time. He defined time as that by which transformations like decay and growth of substances having form are indicated (Lakshyante). (2) In his discussion on Sutra 3-2-12 he asserts that there are divisions of time (of Santi Kaala Vibhaagaah). (3) While commenting on the Sutra 2-2-5 he says–time appears to be divided and designated as day and night because of its association with the movements of the sun and by its frequent repetitions or revolutions the same is designated as month and year. (a) From this we understand that the concept of division of time into day and night is due to its association with others’ movements, due to which time though single appears to have divisions. (b) Again time is conceived as a revolving one–whereby a number of revolutions of time or day are supposed to constitute one month and so on. So the concept of a time-wheel is there. (c) From the same discussion we can also infer that time in Patanjali’s view is partless or Akhanda. (4) In his Bhashya on the Sutra 4-2-3 he declares that time is eternal “Nitye he kaala Nakshatre.” (5) Existence of “Present Time” can be inferred or it can be known by yogic vision.

Bhartrihari: In his monumental work Vakyapadiya, Bhartrihari, in a chapter entitled Kalasamuddesa, and here and there in other Kandas, also discusses about the nature of time. Helaraja in his commentary on the Vakyapadeeya Kaala Samuddesa explains Bhartrihari’s philosophy more vividly. (1) Bhartrihari declares that time is a Shakti of Brahman (V. 1.3). In his own Vritti on the same Karika he explains it still further. Kaala is “power in the form of independence”, “Svaatantrya Shakti” of Brahman. All changes of states of material objects have their own causes, but time-power regulates them by means of its two powers–prevention and permission. Time is considered to be an auxiliary cause (Sahakari Karanam) of all transformations. (2) Rotations of revolutions of time in the form of spring, autumn and winter, etc., are like the revolutions of a water-wheel. By means of these revolutions the all-pervading Brahman drives out or brings to light (Kaalayati ) the ‘Bhavas’ or beings from out of their causes and hence the name “Kaala” to the all-pervading Brahman is significant. The commentator elucidates this point. The all-pervading “Parabrahman” is the only real Being. Because it is the agent of manifold actions, it is known as “Anantashakti” infinite power or possessing infinite power. That is also independent “Svatantra” and hence that Being which is Kaala or time is known as independence-power (or independent power of Brahman), Svaatantryashakti. (3) Time in its divided form is the efficient cause of the birth existence and destruction of those that have them (V. K. 3). (4) Time has two powers–preventive and permissive–“Pratibandha and Abhyanujna.” The whole world is a machine in the form of a puppet. Time holds the strings and operates the machine with its two powers. All beings are birds tied to these threads. When the power of permission comes into play, strings become loosened and the birds fly in the sky. When the power of suspension operates, i. e., when the strings are drawn the birds disappear. Similar is the case with beings. When they appear, we say they are born, when they disappear we say they are dead. These two powers do not come into play at one and the same time. Thus Kaala is said to be the cause of the transformations like birth, growth, decay and destruction of beings and for birth. Existence and destruction of the universe (V. K. 4-15). (5) In addition to the above powers time has three more powers–past, present and future. Through past and future powers time conceals beings and the present-power brings out objects to limelight. According to some, Hari points out, Kaala has the first mentioned two powers only. According to this view, past and future powers come under the Pratibandha and the present power comes under Abhyanujnaa (V. K. 49; 56). (6) Time is single but because of differences in functions it is supposed to be divided as spring, autumn and summer, etc. It is just like designating one and the same person as carpenter, mason and smith, etc., according to the nature of the work he does though he is one and the same while discharging these different functions. Superimposition of others’ attributes is another cause for the apparent diversity in time. When we say “Pot existed” the pastness belongs to the existence or “Satta” of the pot, but this is superimposed on time. Notions of quick and slow uttered once are also but superimpositions. The quickness or slowness relate to the movements of the organs of month or of vital air or “Praanashakti” but not to Time (V. K. 31, 32, 33). (7) What is the part played by Time in this universe? Hari answers: Due to association with particular times particular energies become kinetic while other energies lie dormant. It is in the spring season that the sprouting powers of the trees come into play, when they put on foliage. At that time the powers of decay and withering lie dormant and inactive. In the summer destructive power becomes active and trees shed their foliage and wither away. From this we learn that Time is the instigator, or regulator of powers. After instigating and rousing some powers, Time imposes some restrictions on each activity whereby everything created exists for sometime, grows for sometime, decays and finally perishes. Time is thus the instigator of powers and indicator of transformations in animate or inanimate bodies. That is why it is said that Time-activity is involved in every stage of every object. Hence it is that time by some is identified with “Vyapara” or Kriyaa (V. K. 9 to 13). (8) What happens if Time ceases to operate? There will be no sequence of activities in the world. All powers come into play at one and the same time. Birth, growth, decay and destruction all come together. There will be no other in the world. There will be chaos and confusion (V. K. 5). (9) Bhartrihari declares that Time is a measure, a dimension which differentiates activities or Kriyaas, while Linear measures and weights differentiate concrete objects, and numbers differentiate all things (V. K. 2). (10) In another Karika Hari refers to three opinions regarding Time, some call it Shakti; some call it Atman; and some others call it a deity. Then he says that all these doctrines of Time are valid as long as Avidyaa or illusion is there, but when once wisdom dawns all these vanish (V. K. 62). He also states that there are nothing like sequence and simultaneity except that real Being and hence, there is no difference in fact between sequence and simultaneity (V. S. 83-84). Another point is declared by Hari. Just as nearness and distantness are relative to the person and the place whereon he stands, though there are no such qualities to the road itself which is but a locus to them superimposed on it, Time is also a single locus whereon quickness and slowness are superimposed (V. K. 46, 47). We have to note that in these declarations we see the philosophy of Sankara’s Advaita and a touch of the modern theory of relativity.

Helaraja: In his commentary on the sixty-second Karika of Kaala Samuddesa, Helaraja sums up the doctrine of Time according to grammarians in the following words. “Avidya is the cause of the universe which is nothing but apparent differences caused by Time and space. In the creation of the world, time-division comes in first. The sequenceless Samvit or consciousness in the form of “Pasyanti,” when associated with the activity of the vital air appears as having taken sequence due to time. Reality of Brahman which is consciousness and not affected by time due to Avidyaa appears to have sequence and all beings appear to have a sequence, because all diversity is but illusion. The diviaion of divine Truth (Rta) according to different doctrines by Time is but an effect of Avidya, because on the dawn of Vidyaa, all this universe of diversity vanishes and then this Time (Avidya) also vanishes. So all investigation into the propriety or otherwise of the different doctrines (of Time) is but futile. But we consider Time as real in this day-to-day world as otherwise we cannot explain our day-to-day wordly transaction. So the final conclusion is that Time is useful for all that have birth.” (V. K. 62)

Kaiyata: In his commentary on the Mahabhashya on Paanini’s Sutra 3-2-123 Kaiyata observes that Kaala is Kriyaa. Cf. “Prasiddha Parimaana Kriyaiva Kaala ityuktam.” (2) He also appears to accept “Kaala” as “Akhanda” partless when he observes “Na cha Kaala saamanyam parecchedyam” – “tasyikatvat vibhutvaaccha” (2-2-5). (3) He also accepts two Kaalas “Kaala Saamanya and Kaalavisesha” (2-2-5).

Nagesa: In his Laghumanjushadescribes Kaala (1) as an uninterrupted flow or continuity of Kshanas or moments. (2) Kshana he says is either a Vivarta or Parinaama of Prakriti. (3) It is most transitory but all-pervasive. (4) He also accepts another view that Time just like space is also a modification “Parinaama” of “Sabdatanmaata” subtle sound. (5) He defines Time in three ways:

1. Time is an invariable cause for our daily usages like past, present and future.

2. It is a cause for transformations or modifications (Parinaama).

3. It is a cause for usages like quick and slow, etc.

(6) Kshana according to Nagesa as impermanent substance, an indivisble part of Time without anterior or posterior parts. (7) The word sequence, Karma means an uninterrupted flow or continuity of Kshanas. (8) Following Bhartrihari he also declares that Kaala is  but Avidya Sakti (Hari called it Svatantrya Sakti) on account of which this universe, a Vivarta of Brahman, appears to possess sequence. It causes birth existence and destruction of beings. (9) It is either to be inferred or to be perceived by yogic vision. Differences in time are due to the movements of the sun and moon, etc. (10) Nagesa does not identify time with Kriyaa. Kriyaa exists for three moments, whereas time in the form of “Kshana” exists for a moment only. So they cannot be equated together he says. (Cf. Manjushap. 839-849) But Kaiyata must have been referring to the false usages in the ordinary world as has been pointed out by Bhartrihari in his Vakyapadiya (V. D. 9 to 13). (11) or the Kriyasantati – continuity of Kriyaas. Nagesa does not accept Kaala as “Akhanda.” Time is substratum for all. In the usage “Idaneem ghatah”, here is pot now, the time referred to by the word “now” is not partless one. It is but a part of Time. To accommodate such usages he says we have to accept Time having parts (Paanini, we have seen, accepted divisions of time). The word “Akhanda” in usages like “Eko vibhu rakhandah Kaalah” is to be interpreted to mean “Uninterrupted continuity”. (12) Patanjali declares that “Kaala” is Nitya. Nagesa, according to whom it is Anitya, reconciles his statement by saying that Patanjali’s statement refers to Akhanda Kaala or the eternity spoken of there is that of a stream or “Pravaaha.” (13) The singleness of Kaala is not acceptable to Nagesa because such a one cannot give rise to differences. So singleness has to be interpreted, if at all, to mean that it is one in its continued form (Uddyota on Mahabhashya 2-2-5).

We have to note here that Bhartrihari’s “bird and thread” metaphor is found in the Chandogya Upanishat, though in a slightly different context (6-8-2). The concept of Time-wheel has already been suggested by Patanjali and it is there in ancient astronomical science also. The concept of time as universal soul that is single, all-pervading and partless and time divided into parts can be traced to Taittiriya Aranyaka 1-2-2 to 8. There Samvatsara is taken as the head of the Time personified in the mundane world. Dakshinayana, Uttarayana and seasons are considered as organs of that Time. This is Vyavaharika Time. It is like a river which emerges from out of a perennial source, and whereinto all rivulets like days, nights and fortnights, etc., merge, thus making its swell and flow forever. But the real Time is beyond this. All tha talk of this world, this Samvatsara, and Maasa, etc., is but “Jalpitam” meaningless talk. An ordinary man cannot see that real Time. Time merges in the primordial waters wherein the supreme Lord cast his Virya which became a golden egg. Time taken for that egg to split was considered as an year. So Time also had its birthplace in those primordial waters. But Time is that consciousness supreme named “Adhisattva” and also described as Jnah Kaala Kaalah” in the Vedas. Statement in the Bhagavad-gita “I am Time the destroyer of the Universe”–“Kaalosmi loka Kshaya krit Pravriddhah” identifies Time with the Supreme Lord. So the Advaitic view of Time found in Vakyapadiya is already there in the Aranyakas and the Gita, Patanjali and Kaiyata, and Bhartrihari described this real Kaala as one eternal end division less and the other time–“Kaalavisesha” as a superimposed division. One is called Kaala Saamaanya or Akhanda Kaala while the other is called Kaalavisesha. Nagesa’s view that continuity of Kshanas is Kaala applies more to the time dealt with in Paanini’s grammar, than the real Time, though he appears to have applied his definition to that also and justified his stand.

Bhartrihari’s concept of Time as Shakti possessing two powers appears to be his novel idea but it too has its sources in Tantra literature. Time in Tantraraja Tantra as quoted by Nitya Shodasikarnava (6.38) is described as “Kriyaasakti” of Isvara, it is the body of all the Tattvas and is the cause for the appearance of the world. Tantraraja Tantra in the 36th chapter states that Lava Triti and other divisions of Time are but fractions of Universal Time whose one nature is that Chit which has neither beginning nor end. All the constellations also are forms of Chit inseparate from Kaala (Kaala-prithagrupa chidrupa) –Subhagodaya also describes Kaala as Lord’s Sakti causing birth and death thereby setting regular limits to beings (38 verse). Thus the concept of Time as a Sakti also has its sources in Tantrik literature. Saptasati Gita also identifies Time with Sakti, Cf. “Kalaa Kaasthaadi Rupena Parinaama Pradaayinee.”

The concept of two powers of Time, suspension and permission is not new to Vedic and Tantric literature. Shiva according to Tantras divides himself into two “Prasara” and “Samkocha” which move one after another and this continuation or revolution of the two is the Time wheel. The first one is identical with the power Abhyanujna and the second with Pratibandha of Bhartrihari. In fact Vedic Samvatsara also is considered as a wheel which has Dakshinayana and Uttarayana, corresponding to Pitriyana and Deveyana as two powers. Similarly Sukla and Krishna Pakshas (light and dark fortnights) also are the two powers of Time Maasa or month. Shiva or Parasakti is the hub around which all the 15 days of the light and dark fortnights revolve about (page 305 Bharatrya Samskriti our Sadhana, by M. M. Gopinatha Kaviraj). Thus the influence of Vedas, Tantras and Advaitavedanta are all there in Bhartrihari’s exposition of Time concept. So time in real is identical with the Supreme, whether it be Shiva or Shakti, or Shakti of Shiva which is not different from Shiva, because there is no difference between “Shakti and Shaktimat” and the Time in use in our worldly transactions and grammar is either the Vivarta or Parinaame of the Real or ‘Prakriti’ according to difference in doctrines. This Time according to Nagesa is in the form of continuity of Kshanas and it is transitory. The epithets eternal and single if applied to this have to be interpreted as suggested by him.