Early Background of Judaism

EARLY GROUND OF JUDAISM

DR. MADHUSUDAN MALLICK, M. A. (Double), D. Phil.
Adhyapaka, Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan

Semitic Peoples

The Jews belong to one of the Semitic peoples who in times gone by lived in Western Asia but never constituted a racial unit. The Semitic peoples recorded in history are–the Babylonians, Assyrians, Aramaeans, Phoenicians, Hebrews, Edomites, Moabites, Ammonites, Carthegians, Arabs and Abyssinians (Falashas).

Semitic Languages

Next in importance to the Indo-European linguistic family comes the Semitic group. Semitic is sometimes combined with Hamitic and forms the Harmiti-Semitic group, of which the Semitic forms a sub-group. The Semitic is divided into East Semitic represented only by Akkadian formerly and still popularly called Assyrian, Babylonian or Assyro-Babylonian dating from about 2800 B. C. of which 2800 B. C. to 650 B. C. being called Old Akkadian (or Assyrian) that after 650 B. C. being called New Akkadian (or Babylonian) West Semitic and the latter again into North-West; Old Canaanitic (about 15th century B. C.), Ugaritic (14th century B. C.), Phoenician (13th to 10th century B. C.), Moabite (middle of 9th century B. C.), Hebrew (from the 2nd millennium B. C. to about the 4th century B. C. in which all the Old Testaments excepting Genesis XXXI-47, Jeremiah X. II, Daniel ii. 45.vii. 28 and Ezra iv. 8-vi 18, vii. 12-26) which are in Aramaic, and which again falls into western and eastern groups, the former having Old Aramaic Inscriptions (Hama and Zinjirli, early 8th century B.C.), Paalmyrene (from 1st century B. C. to 3rd century A. D.), Nabataean (from 1st century B. C. to 4th century A. D.), Sinaitic, (from 1st century to 4th century A. D.), Biblical Aramaic often wrongly called Chaedaean, i.e., Non-Hebrew portions of the Bible (as also the collections of papyri found in Egypt), Judaeo-Aramaic (used in Targums and in Palestinian Talmud), Christian Palestinian Aramaic (5th to 6th century A. D), Samaritan (3rd and 4th century A. D.) the latter into south and south-west Semitic represented by North Arabic (recorded in Libyanian between 1st or 2nd century B. C. to 4th or 6th century A. D. and Thamudian of uncertain date)) Arabic (famous as the language of Koran and based on the dialect of Mekkah and vehicle of a great literature), South Arabic (Manaean, Sabaean, Quthabanian) and Hadramantian from 8th century B. C. to 6th century A. D. and Ethiopic (also called Ge-ez).

Animistic Beliefs

The Ancient Semitics believed that every place, tree, rock, spring, etc., had its spirit or was thought to be peopled by a spirit which eventually led to the origin of Semitic deities. Like some other races at similar stages of development the Semitics regarded the trees and specially the ‘ever green trees’ as the abode of spirits and later on of Gods and Goddesses. In other words we have an indication of the belief in animism (cf. the passages in 2 Samv. 23, 24 as also i Chronicle, xiv. 15). The same animistic conceptions of running waters, rivers, streams, lakes, seas, etc., were as pronounced as the trees. Springs are regarded as sacred (cf. Enmishpat ‘spring of decision’) and wells too had their sacred parts (cf. the well of Beersheba, Genesis) XXI 22-23). Sacred stones (a rock, a boulder, a heap of stones or a pillar) as a rule are inanimate, though examples of sacred natural stones occur.

Social Organisation

The Semitic tribes in Arabia had a matriarchal form of social organisation. It is therefore evident that they would think of their deity as a mother. The mother Goddess had different names among Semitic peoples. In Babylonia she is called Ishtar; among the Phoenicians as Ashtart; the Greek called her Astarte corrupted by the later Hebrews Ashtoreth (self-waterer). The Goddess had a son called Dumuzi (reverted to Hebrew–Tammuz–son of life) in Babylonia.

Herodouloi

As a corollary to the fertility cult the customs of consecration to the deities of men and women who were not prostitutes in the usual sense of the term, arose. This institution is not immoral. It persisted down to the reform of Josiah in 621 B. C. (H. Kings 23.7)  

Gilgal

These are circles of stones arranged in a perpendicular way. They seem to be of prehistoric in origin and taken by the Hebrew.

Asheras (Sacred poles)

The term Asherah is a wrong translation of Hebrew substantive as “grove”. In the Old Testament it is used in distinct senses. In a cuneigorm tablet found at Taanach is displayed the Worship of Goddess Ashirat or Asherah. It is also used as an image set up by Manasseh within the Jewish temple. It is generally made of wood so that it could be removed easily or burnt down or cut up at once.

Circumcision (cutting of tile foreskin or prepuce)

The rite of circumcision is a widespread custom prevalent among the Jews, Mohammedans, Polynesians, Egyptians, Primitive tribes of Africa and Australia, etc. It is estimated that one-seventh of the male population of the globe are circumcised. The origin of this rite is shrouded in mystery. Some are of opinion that it is consecration of the reproductive organ to the deity to give more fertility, some a purely physical convenience, some a mark of tribal affiliation, some as a preparation for sexual life, some as a test of courage for entry into the tribe, while still some as a sacrifice of a part for the whole to the deity. To the Jews circumcision is an important commandment. It is performed even (according to Talmud) on the Sabbath (i.e., 8th day after the birth). On this occasion a name is given to the child, a festive meal is held in which a special ‘Grace’ is recited.

Sacrifice

Sacrifice or an offering (animal, human or the first fruits of the earth) made to a divinity is customary in most religions and confined to a few nations or races. The Semitic sacrifice was thought to be commensal (i.e., common meal in which the worshipper and the deity took part). The idea behind such a meal is that the food cements the bond between the worshipper and the deity. The Israelites practised animal sacrifice including the human beings. This practice continued, though sporadically (cf, the sacrifice or Jephtha’s daughter, Judges, II: 34-40 and slaughter or children during the reign of Manasseh, II kings 21:6, Jeremiah 32:35) down to a late period when with the destruction of the temple in 70 A. D. it came to an end.

Passover

Passover is a translation of the Hebrew very “Pasah” to skip, to pass over. The Jews reinterpreted the ancient Semitic festival of passover. It may be that in early times sacrifice consisted of the first born of animals including the first born of men. For a long period it was considered obligatory to offer the first born in sacrifice to Yahweh. Later on a lamb was substituted in place of men and asses. To account for the replacement, a story was concocted that Abraham was ordained from above to make such a substitution. This festival is celebrated for seven or eight days from the first month (nisan) as a remembrance of their deliverance from the bondage of the Egyptians.

Lex Talionis (or the unwritten law of retaliation)

In the early Semitic society there was no properly constituted authority or a body of codified laws to enforce its decisions. They had some local chiefs who derived their authority from the agreed consent of the people. Gradually a body of principles having the sanction of the tribes grew up and received divine sanction. This was the Lex Talionis. It is simply this, “An eye for eve, a tooth for truth, etc.” From this it follows that the next of kin to the slain will avenge the blood of his kinsmen. This practice was ingrained in their blood and carried to places where the Semites went.

Ban or Herem (Blood-feud)

This is an old institution practised by the Moabites in its vigorous form, perhaps also by the Ammorites (2 Chronicles, 29:23). Three kinds of such practices are distinguished–war, justice and private. The ethnological jurisprudence demands that a whole family (rarely a clan or a tribe) should retaliate another family for any serious wrong done. It is communal vengeance in contradiction from personal revenge, although the ultimate aim is the individual retaliation. It becomes a sacred duty imposed upon the next of kin when for any reason its passion is inflamed.

Prophesy

The institution of prophesy was another trait or the Semites. Israel’s early prophets were of an epileptic or nervously disposed types. King Saul in the early part of his life associated himself with such prophets. It is fortunate that Israel was able to throw off such a system and replaced ecstasy by vision.
21st December, 1973