Oriental Music

ORIENTAL MUSIC
Characteristics of Form and Melodic Structure

DR. JOSEF KUCKERTZ, Ph. D.
University of Koln

This study attempts to determine the characteristics of form and melodic structure of several individual styles in oriental art music, and especially in Carnatic music whose homeland is Southern India, by comparison between these styles. Frequently these characteristics can be inferred only from the native conception of music or on the basis of the historical development of this music. Hence it is always necessary to take into consideration the native conception and theory of music and sometimes also to refer to the history of this music.

As the investigation of practical music shows, the melodic organization in the Middle East on the one hand and in India on the other hand have a common basis, but the styles of both groups are largely foreign to each other.

In order to gain sufficiently exact criteria to show the differences between Indian art music, especially Carnatic music, and art music of the Middle East, in the beginning some pieces from Tunisia, Egypt, and Persia are discussed. Regarding formal structure and melodic formation, the pieces show the following characteristics:

Each of the Tunisian pieces exposes at its beginning one period which forms the basis of subsequent melodic development and of formal structure. This period serves as a model for all subsequent periods and it consists of two phrases; sometimes these are preceded by a further phrase which has an introductory function. The first of the principal phrases sticks closely to the upper structural tone, the second one moves towards the lower structural tone. The two structural tones lie at the distance of a fourth, fifth or sixth from one another. In the Egyptian pieces, too, melodic development is determined by two structural tones. The lower one of these has the function or effect of a tonic; the upper one–at a distance of at least a second and at most a fourth above the former–functions as a “dominant.” Here the melody is composed of periods of unequal length, which in turn consist of a succession of variants of a relatively short basic melodic pattern. The length of the periods depends on the length of the underlaid poetic texts. The basic melodic pattern itself is a short group of tones in a particular order, and each of these tones has a specific degree or metrical importance expressed in its time-value. Sometimes the variants split the basic melodic pattern into three or four parts. In the Persian pieces, the basic melodic pattern is embedded in a structural interval of the size of a fourth or a fifth. It is single unit or it can be divided into a principal formula and a corresponding closing formula. By means of the variants derived from it, this basic melodic pattern is spun out into phrases. Within these phrases, the melodic center of gravity tends to appear as a pure tone, whereby the structural interval remains constantly present. Although the nature of melodic development differs greatly from one musical culture to another, these pieces show the following common characteristics:

1. Scalar arrangements of all tones used in every individual Maqam (or Tab in Tunisia, Nagma in Egypt, Dastgah in Persia) are the result of the superimposition of fourth and fifths. The octave is of only secondary importance in this process.

2. Every basic melodic pattern is a unit, even though it can be divided into several parts. This basic melodic pattern, always present in the mind of the performing musician, is the ground of melodic organization. From the opposite point of view the performed melody is perceived as a succession of numerous realizations of the basic melodic pattern.

3. Periods and phrases are formed by stringing together realizations of the basic melodic pattern according to the traditional principles of the musical culture in question. These periods and phrases are the component materials of musical form. The balance of the form is based on the harmonious proportion of the duration of all periods and phrases.

4. In pieces which are metrically organized, the metre may be either imposed on the melody from outside or produced from within it. In the former case the melody gets a metre consisting of continually repeated metrical patterns (measures). In the latter case the time-values of tones which vary in portions of the melody, which are not metrically organized, are brought into a ratio based on whole numbers. Figures of unequal lengths, in metrically not organized melodies lead to measures of unequal length, that is, containing unequal numbers ofbeats, in that case.

In comparison these common characteristics of the pieces from the Middle East, a glance at the transcription of the Indian pieces already shows some essential differences. For instance, all the pieces have the basis-tone “sa” notated as “c” in accordance with the Indian scale systems (Melakarta and Thaat system) which are of recent origin. This tone “sa” is the fundamental tone ofevery melody. The evolution of the melody is not limited by structural tones; hence the melodic line can go below the fundamental tone, and it can expand over a range of two octaves and more, according to the Raaga, but also according to the range of the singer’s voice or of the instrument which is used. Finally metrical organization is not brought about by imposition ofmeasures on the melody but by Taala.

The musical term ‘Taala’ denotes among others a period of beats which regulates the melodic flow from the ground. There is a great number of such Taala periods, and most of them are included in systems. The greater part of the Taala periods used in South India can be found in the system or 35 Culati or Jati Taalas. The Taala period which is chosen for a metrically organized piece of music, serves–especially at the beginning of the piece–as a standard for the length of the melodic period. Moreover it is the smallest pulse in melody and drumming. Beyond this, both melody and drumming have all possibilities of metric rhythmical development at their disposal.

When a metrically organized piece of Carnatic music is performed, a fixed time interval is combined with the chosen Taala period. This combination forms an indissoluble unit for the duration of the piece; in most cases it does not permit the time interval to be lengthened or shortened, or the succession of beats to be changed.

In a performance, the soloist, or another musician especially engaged for the purpose, marks the main Taala beats by beating on his thigh or clapping his hands, and he counts the secondary beats on his fingers. In Nagasvara ensembles small cymbals are used to mark the main beats.

The melodies of Carnatic music are for the most part “in a Raaga.” According to the definition given by Matanga in his treatise “Brihaddesi” (about 9th century A. D.), the musical term ‘Raaga’ denotes a creation of sound which is ornamented by particular melodic formulas and pleases the mind of human beings. In conformity with modern (Northern Indian) definitions, Raaga is “an objective expression of the subjective feeling of the mind.”
(Swami Prajnanananda)

The modern Raagas developed on the basis ofthe older Jatis, whose scalar arrangements were systematized by means of Graamas and Murchanas in order to determine exactly the model scales on which they are based. Today in South India the Raaga scales are classified according to their resemblance to the 72 theoretical scales of the Melakarta system.

The Raaga as an acoustic phenomenon covers the entire area from the melodically individualized scale which identifies the Raaga to the fully developed composition and improvisation. The melodically individualized scale or Raaga-scale already contains the essential Gamaka or ornament. Only with these Gamakas is the individuality of a Raaga fully brought to light. The central feature in the area covered by Raaga melodies consist, essentially.

The order in which these melodic figures are brought into play as component elements of melodic organisation depends on the overall melodic curve, on what may be termed “melodic structure,” which in turn is determined by considerations of form. Although each of the forms examined in this study, such as Aalaapana, Taana, Kriti, and Varna, has its own characteristic melodic structure, one factor is common to all of them: the melodic curve is always relatively slight at the beginning and it gradually expands to higher pitch levels in the course of the piece.

The designation of the Kriti as “the great composed concert piece” automatically leads to the question what “composition” might mean in the context of Carnatic music. Several comparisons of two versions of the same piece show that in the Kriti as well as in the Varna ornamentation is subject to changes, but not the structural frame-work of the melody. However, especially in the third section of a Kriti, the Varna, ample space is left open for extended improvisation.

The analyses based on the descriptions of Raaga by “Indian musical theorists, of altogether 27 pieces in 13 Raagas reveal the manner in which the melodic figures which are ‘Invented,’ in the Raaga-samchaara are used in melodic organization. Thus it becomes clear that often specific melodic figures are used with preference, and that these may serve as characteristic features by which the individual Raaga can be recognized. In the last chapter the individual character of North Indian music is outlined on the basis or the most important features of music theory and some pieces. North Indian music theory has a system of Taala classification which does not resemble the modern Southern system of 35 Culati or Jati Taalas, but which bears a likeness to the “classical” systems of Taala classification in that it arranges the single Taalas side by side. On the other hand, the Thaat system, which contains only ten scales, is a selection from the South Indian Melakarta system. Noteworthy features of Northern musical practice are the facts that the duration of the Taala period is gradually shortened and that more or less fixed “themes” develop.

The musical systems of North and South India largely agree in principle, but they show no correlation with the musical systems of the Middle East. Hence transference from West to East and vice versa must be limited to example melodies or melodic figures which can be assimilated by another musical culture without causing difficulties of intonation and interpretation. The question is, however, whether a musician who adopts foreign musical material has not already adjusted his aural perception of this material in such a way that it becomes equivalent to a new creation in his native style.