Reviews

Problems of Under-developed Economy by D. S. Nag. Published by Lakshmi Narayan Agarwal, Agra. Pp. 463. Price Rs. 18.

It is usual to divide the countries of the world into two categories–the developed and the under-developed. Countries of Europe, the United States and Canada, Australia and New Zealand fall into the former category. All countries of Asia with the exception of Japan, and all countries of Africa with the exception of South Africa and all of Latin America fall into the latter category. For centuries the economy of the undeveloped countries has remained stagnant and it is only today as a result of the contact with the West that they are taking the first steps to modernize themselves and build an economy based on science and technology with a view to have their total income and their per capita income being raised.

The question however for economists to consider is whether the theories that have so far been evolved by them hold true of the undeveloped countries. Such a question arises because these theories were developed mainly by western economists on the basis of the conditions which prevailed in developed countries. The problems with which they dealt are quite different from those which are peculiar to undeveloped countries and they require quite different solutions. Dr. D. S. Nag of the Jabalpur University examines with great care the special nature of these problems and comes to the conclusion that in finding solutions for them the theories so far formulated by economists are quite inadequate and that new theories have to take their place.

He points out in the first place that though there may be considerable difference between one undeveloped country and another all of them have certain basic characteristics. In all of them people have a low standard of living, there is a low rate of investment. There is an inadequate supply of entrepreneurial ability. Potential natural resources are available. There is also a keen desire for development among their people. They all suffer from a deficiency of capital. Their economy is based on subsistance farming. They are extremely dependent on exports. They suffer from over-population which goes on increasing at a rapid rate. There is a good deal of under-employment and disguised unemployment in them. These are only a few of their basic characteristics but all these make their economy essentially different from the highly industrialized and urban economy of the developed countries. Modern economic theories deal essentially with problems of development at a higher level or with the problems of sustaining the growth rate already achieved. “They hardly project themselves into problems of moving an under-developed economy away from stagnation.”

The theories that are needed in the case of countries whose economy is undeveloped should have a bearing on the factors which can bring about a larger amount of capital formation, and which can tap the enormous amount of “disguised unemployment” which contain a hidden source of saving. They must throw light on the special problem of capital absorption. They should take into consideration the larger part which Government has to play in planning and regulating the economy. This is why theories based on laissez-faire and free enterprise became irrelevant in such a context. There should also be a new theory of international trade, a theory which will explain the terms of trade between countries with unequal economies. In addition to all these there is the play of several new economic factors some like religion, caste and other social barriers retarding economic growth and some others like nationalism encouraging it. Classical economists never took into consideration the influence of such factors.

On this basis Dr. Nag has developed a new theory of economic development. It is not entirely new as in recent years many western economists have directed their attention to this problem. It is also not quite new in another sense. Sixty, or seventy years ago nationalists like Ranade pointed out new western economic theories were not applicable to India. It is not therefore so much the novelty of the theory as the keenness with which he carries out his analysis and the extensive study on which it is based that makes his volume a substantial contribution to a better understanding of the problems with which under-developed countries are confronted today.

Foreign Economic Policy of Soviet Russia by D. S. Nag. Published by Lakshmi Narayan Agarwal, Agra. Pp. 111. Price Rs. 10.

One of the characteristics of the contemporary world is the large amount of economic aid that is being extended to underdeveloped countries by the more advanced nations of the west. In this the leading part is played by the United States and Soviet Russia. In this book Dr. Nag of the University of Jabalpur reviews the nature and the broad characteristics of the aid given to ward countries by Soviet Russia and suggests a number of improvements that may be made in it so that it may produce more substantial results than it is doing today.

He makes it clear at the outset that the motive behind Soviet economic policy in relation to ward countries is to put an end to the relics of imperialism and to see that their economies become sufficiently progressive so that they may ultimately stand on their own legs. This according to him is in general line with Marxism as modified by Lenin. It is the hope of Soviet Russia that such countries would in due course take to Marxism-Leninism and get away from their indigenous feudal economies and also from the domination of the capitalistic economies of the West. There is however no pressure of a deliberate character exercised over the countries to which aid is extended. All aid is without strings of any kind. Most of the aid is economic and not military. In this respect there is a difference between Soviet Russia and the United States.

The aid given is in the form of capital and of technical assistance. It is this kind of aid of which the ward countries are in the greatest need. He illustrates the nature of the aid given by an elaborate study of Soviet participation in the Bhilai steel plant and in the oil industry in India. Credit loans are given on a long term basis and at comparatively low rates of interest. In extending technical assistance it is the objective of Soviet Russia to train specialists, engineers, technicians, skilled workers etc., in the country to which such assistance is granted. In all these respects Dr. Nag is of the view that Soviet policy is more disinterested than that of the United States. This is the main point on which he lays emphasis, though it is bound to be a controversial one.

He suggests that the Soviet Union should increase its aid both in terms of amount and speed, that the duration the credits given should be fairly long, that the Soviet Union should serve as a market not merely for the raw materials produced by the ward countries but also for their manufactures, and that more aid should be extended for the modernisation of their agriculture, instead of aid being given only for industrialisation. There are also other suggestions made by him for reorientation of Soviet foreign economic policy and they deserve favourable consideration at the hands of Soviet authorities.

The volume is a scholarly study of the subject and it is certain to have a wide appeal to specialists as well as to the lay public.
–M. VENKATARANGAIYA

Sadhana for Self-Realisation (Mantras, Yantras and Tantras) by Swami Pratyagatmananda Saraswati and Sir John Woodroffe. Ganesh and Co. (Madras) Private Ltd., Madras-17. Pages 125. Price Rs. 6.

Herein the authors champion the cause of Mantra, Yantra and Tantra, as means for self-realisation, and attempt to remove the misconceptions about them, define them in modern scientific terms and explain how these are to be conceived and put to use for self-realisation. In order to convince the western readers and modern scientists, the authors correlate the technical terms in vedic and tantric parlance with those of modern higher mathematics and physics. The introduction of 26 pages by Swamiji succinctly explains the significance of mantra, yantra, tantra and other technical terms like Bindu, Nada, Kala, Ardhamatra etc., and outlines the systematic Japa of (Vyaharna) Gayatri mantra and Pranava, to rouse the Kundalini power. Thus this section really serves the purpose of introducing the reader to the principles of Tantra sastra. The Chapter on Yantras is the signal contribution of Swamiji, wherein he unfolds and expounds the significance of yantra etc., in modern scientific terminology. This chapter, intended as it is for a scientist, is a hard nut to crack for an ordinary reader. Swamiji should have done well, first to explain the relevant theories of modern science in a simple manner on the lines of some modern American authors of scientific books and then correlated them with the esoteric techniques of the Tantra cult, enabling thereby an ordinary reader also to grasp the subject easily. However chapters V, VI and VII of this section which summarise the previous chapters in a nut shell are worth careful study with perseverance and patience.

“Mantram is what operates the root, matrix or source of power, so as to generate the requisite kind and quantity of energy for creative or other purposes.” “Yantram is the power apparatus for the adjustment, control and application of power having regard to a desired kind and degree of working efficiency–tantra relates specially to the right rtam or chandah, the correct technique, the concerned modus operandi by which mantram operating through appropriate yantram will deliver the goods.” (P. 11) Correlating these definitions with vedic terminology and applying this scheme to the syllable hrimSwamiji further explains “The three are interlinked together. The bija hrim, for instance, to be operative, must combine the three. As mantra it evolves the nabhi h; r and i trace the yantra of power disposition; and chandrabindu is the indicator of the pattern (cyclic or spiraline in this case) of power operation. The latter two refer specially to ara and nemi as mantra refers to nabhi.” (P. 23) The same are defined in scientific terminology on page 64 as follows. “The basic evolvent of Number relations (e.g. wave frequency atomic number, Chromosome number) is mantram; that of Magnitude relations (e.g. wavelength, all forms and patterns) is yantram; and what correlates the one system of relations (e.g. formulae and equations) with the other is tantram.”

Swamiji hints at the process, taking Gayatri mantra as a means–and thus the introduction is of much value to the inquisitive seeker also. The chapter on Tantras is lucid, instructive and illuminating. A letter addressed by Swamiji to Sir John Woodroffe also is included at the end–and this letter contains a discourse on the subject whether “Sakti becomes deplete, when Kundalini is uncoiled and roused. Swamiji answers that it never becomes depleted. The discourse is very interesting.”

This work is a de novo approach to the interpretation of tantric technique. It dispells and sets at naught the doubts of a doubting Thomas, enlightens a believer groping in darkness about the subject, instils and reinforces fresh enthusiasm in a believer, introduces a novice to the subject, and most important of all, attempts to carry conviction to a modern scientist by explaining the subject in his own language. So a layman, a seeker, and a scientist as well, all can reap a rich harvest of enlightenment on the subject, by a careful perusal of this work.

–B. KUTUMBA RAO

TELUGU

Telugu Chandovikasamu by K. Sampatkumaracharya. Published by Kulapati Samiti, Warangal. Pages 18+327. Price Rs. 10.

That the Sahitya Academy of the Andhra Pradesh has thought it fit to honour the author with an award of one thousand rupees for the publication of this work, is itself a proof of the value and high standard of this work. This is an almost exhaustive, historical, descriptive and comparative treatise on the origin and evolution of prosody in all its aspects in Telugu literature, from the pre-Nannaya period upto modern times. Both in quality and quantity, this work does not in any way fall short of a comparison with any thesis submitted for a Research Degree in Universities. After a dissertation on the origins of the science and the nature of prosody, the author surveys the literature of pre-Nannaya period and comes to the conclusion that metres Germana to Dravidian languages must have had their origin even before Christ. At about 1000 A. D., Champakamala and Utpalamala, metres belonging to Samskrit poetry were adapted by Telugu poets. Nannaya in his Bharatam used 22 Samskrit metres of which Champaka and Utpala malas are the most frequent, being used 240 and 184 respectively. Of the 8 desi metres used by him Kandamu, which is used 1219 times tops the list and Madhyakkara is the most frequently used one among special metres. An exhaustive study of the nature of metres used by Nannaya is made in this 4th Chapter. A study of Champus and Dwipadas follows, wherein it is proved that the tradition of Champus was borrowed by Nannaya from Kannada, but not from Samskrit. If Nannaya is the originator, of the Champu tradition in Telugu, Somanadha is the founder of the Dwipada tradition. Chapters Seven and Eight dealing with Yati and Prasa, and works on prosody in Telugu form the cream of this book. Even the metres used in folk songs, and modern poetry are given a clear exposition and Mutyalasaramu of modern poetry has an important place in this exposition. A chapter is devoted to Shat Pratyayas and six kinds of versification are also given their due place. In every chapter the author has something his own to contribute, and his exposition of the subject matter is always clear and exhaustive. A valuable preface by Sri Visvanadha Satyanarayana enhances the value of this book which in our opinion is an indispensable aid to every student of Telugu literature.

–B. KUTUMBA RAO