The Lingayats-Their Religion and Literature

The Lingayats:

Their Religion and Literature

(Research Scholar, The Madras University)

When Stephen, King of Poland, was questioned why he should not constrain some of his subjects, following religions other than his own, he said: "I am king of men and not of consciences; the dominion of consciences belongs exclusively to God." Indians realised and practised this principle of religious freedom and individual liberty of worship. They believed that the world was wide enough to hold more than one religion and, after all, what are religions but the different forms of the "highest ethical civilisations," given by great men to different parts of the world, during different periods of history? In other words, religions are ethical codes of adjustments and readjustments of rules of conduct and life, from time to time. It was this catholic conception of religious liberty that has saved India from moral degradation and religious stagnation.

One of the most ancient and celebrated cults of India was that of Siva. In the Rig Veda, Rudra was spoken of as a prominent God. In the days of Yajur Veda, the dualistic aspect of Siva as Sankara and Mahadeva was emphasised upon. The Bhagavad Gita referred to Siva as the Ruler of the Creation. Till the 3rd century B.C., the religion of Siva, with its lofty ideals, was prevalent in India. But its very rigidity, its highest conception of ‘Soham’– "He is I," or "I am He"–and the exclusiveness of the Brahmans who were its patrons, led to a religious revolution led by other castes, which finally culminated in the establishment of Jainism and Buddhism, the message of which was love more than knowledge, and service rather than salvation. But the new-born religions had a set-, owing to several internal causes and paved, the way for the revival of Saivism, which was, however, by the 4th century A. D., recognised by only a class of people. Thus the narrow, sectarian worship of Siva began. Broadminded people tried their best to replace it by the doctrines of the union of Siva and Vishnu–"Harihara,"–and the fusion of Siva, Vishnu and Brahma–"Trimurti." But their efforts were of no avail, and for a long time, the sectarian form of Saivism continued, helpless, however, to counteract the results of Jainism and Buddhism. But, between the 6th and 9th centuries A. D., thanks to the impetus given by the establishment of a Saivaite School in Kashmir, there was a revival of Saivism, with a motive to suppress the heretical faiths of Jainism and Buddhism. Sri Sankara was the leader, and with a stern hand and kind heart, he carried out a thorough cleansing of the Saiva faith and made it highly acceptable. Coming to the 10th century A. D., we see the Pasupath form of Saivism flourishing in South India; and as a sect, the Santiparva of the Mahabharata referred to the people, praising the Pasupath cult, while its founder Lakulisa was mentioned both in the Vayu and Kurma puranas. The Pasupath form of Saivism or Lakulamnaya was only a resuscitation of the old Saivism and it did not break away from the traditional Vedic faith. In fact, "Saivism struggled against Vedic control rather than against Vedic belief." It only emphasised on the immanent transcendental God–Siva. Once again, the reign of Bijjala or Bijjana, the King of the Kalachuris, saw the revival of the worship of Siva, under the leadership of Basava; a fresh impetus was given to the Saiva faiths with the introduction of elaborated and improved practices and rites, which, in their turn, culminated in the establishment of a new sect of Siva bhaktas or Siva worshippers, technically called ‘Vira Saivas’ and popularly known as ‘Lingayats’ or ‘Lingawants.’

The Lingayats were outwardly distinguished from the ordinary Saivites by the practices of carrying about with them a miniature linga usually encased in a silver box, suspended from their necks or hanging on their arms or about their waists. They called themselves ‘the champions of Saiva faith.’ "They were brave, fierce and strict Saivas. Their community, as such, comprised a large number of castes and tribes, from the Brahman downwards." They chose for their chief occupation only trade and commerce. The Aradhyas–the Brahman Virasaivas–did yeoman service in preserving the vernacular of the Virasaivas–Kannada–in a state of high proficiency, amidst the constant inroads of the Mahrattas from the north. The rest of the Virasaivas form an intelligent and progressive body of people, carrying on an extensive internal and external trade.

The chief characteristics of the faith and practice of the Vira Saivas were the adoration of the linga and Siva’s bull, Nandi; hostility to orthodox Brahmans and rejection of the authority of the Vedas; disbelief in the transmigration of the soul, contempt for the custom of child marriage, and approval and habitual practice of the remarriage of widows; and their total neglect of the observances of caste, pilgrimage and penance. According to them, all holiness consisted in due regard for three vital things–Guru, linga and Jangam (the guide; the image; and the fellow religionist). The guide or confessor could be any man or woman, who belonged to the creed, and who whispered the sacred mantram in the ears of the jangam or worshipper, and who placed the image on the neck or bound it on the arm or around the waist. A Guru was forbidden to eat flesh, to chew betel or to touch liquor: and he wore a "Kempa kavi vastra"–garment dyed with red ochre–[Rice’s Gazetteer Vol. I: p. 476.]

From a careful study of the Vira Saiva literature, some idea of the doctrines and beliefs of their religion could be obtained. Basava’s Vira Saivism, first and foremost, based itself on the teaching of previous Saiva teachers. It followed the Pasupath cult in making Siva the transcendental God. It affirmed that Siva, as Pasupathi, was the operative cause of the whole evolution of the Universe. Its principles were the essence of Vedas, Puranas and Upanishads, as evidenced by Linga Lila Vilasa of Kalla Mathada Prabhudeva and Gana Bhashya Ratnamale of Gubbiya Mullanna, the great Vira Saiva literary works of the 15th century A.D. Vira Saivism also professed to act in entire concord with the Srutis and not outside them. When analysed, the Vira Saiva doctrines distinctly were the following: - (1) Ashtavarnam (2) Shatsthala (3) Shatsthala Gnanam, and (4) Shatsthala Viveka. Let us take the Ashtavarnam: - It meant eight environments or aids, provided against sin and evil. They were: (a) obedience to a Guru, (b) worship of a linga, (c) reverence to the Jangamas as incarnation of Siva, (d) vibhuti–cowdung-ashes and its use on the body, (e) wearing of a rudraksha (cleocarpus ganitras) sacred to Siva, (f) Padodaka, the washing in or drinking water in which the feet of a guru or a jangama had been bathed, (g) Prasada, the presentation of food to a Guru and eating sacramentally what had been left: and (h) Panchakshara, uttering of the five-syllabled formula of obedience to Siva. The next doctrine, Shatsthala, was very important and it received eloquent attention from the Vita Saiva writers. Among the several works elucidating the doctrine, Mayi Devi’s "Shatsthala Brahmavadi" of later Vira Saiva literature and Jakkanayya’s "Nurondasthala" need special mention. In its essence, the doctrine consisted in the strict adherence to the rule that prescribed both religious beliefs and conduct, which were comprehensively set down as comprising six vital points, each being further subdivided into 101 items, (Ekoththara Shatsthala). They were popularly known as the six stages of approximation towards the union with Siva. They were ‘Bhakti,’ ‘Mahesha,’ ‘prasada,’ ‘pranalinga,’ ‘Sarana’ and ‘Aikya.’ Vira Saivism preached the manifestation of the impersonal divine entity–Sivatatva–as linga sthala, a personal deity to be easily worshipped. The three degrees of manifestation of the impersonal deity were described as the Bhavalinga (corresponds to spirit), Pranalinga (corresponds to the life or subtle body), and Ishtalinga (corresponds to the material body or stone linga).

On the philosophical side, Vira Saivism differs from the rest of the previous branches of Saivism. Unlike them, which were dualistic, Vira Saivism held a doctrine of qualified spiritual monism, resembling Vaishnavism in this respect. According to it, there existed a power, only in God, which led to Creation: so that it was the power, energy, that characterised God. The method of redemption taught by the Vira Saiva School was ‘Bhakti’,–love of God, and a course of moral and spiritual discipline, resembling that of Buddhism, up to the attainment of ‘Samarasya’ or union with Siva.

The traditionary stories concerning Basava, the promulgator of this new Saiva faith, and his chief supporter, Channa Basava, were told in several Kannada poems and prose works, recounting their lives and activities. They were: - "Basava Stotra Trividhi" by Siddha Rama–1160 A. D.: "Pancha Ratna Sharanu," "Basava Ragale" and "Channa Basava Stotra Ragale" by Palkuri Soma (or Somana Aradhya), 1195 A. D.: "Basava Purana" by Bhimakavi–1369 A. D.; and "Basavaraja Vijaya" by Shadakshara Deva, 1677 A. D., which was popularly known as "Vrishabhendra Vijaya": and "Channa Basava Purana" by Virupaksha Pandita, 1854 A. D. These books were valuable mines of historical information, of course with literary platitudes and embellishments, and they consisted of the chief sources of information regarding the establishment of Vira Saivism and its honoured founder and supporters.

It was in concert with his nephew, Channa Basava, that Basava propounded a new doctrine and a novel mode of worshipping Siva, and attacked the aesthetic aspect of the prevailing Jainism, in the Kanarese countries. To his great task as a religious preacher and a social reformer, he brought, as an inalienable ancestral heritage, a great spiritual tradition of sacrificial devotion and dedicated service. He was a great standard-bearer of the honour of his society and the soldier of her ancient religion, and a tireless champion of the suffering and downtrodden. He had no prejudice of caste, colour, creed or race. He was one of God’s chosen to pilot the overburdened ship of a troubled society across the stormy sea of those times, to the safe shore of peace and happiness.

With regard to Basava’s life, activities and death, we have three different versions in three different books: ‘Basava Purana,’ ‘Channa Basava Kalagnana’ and the Jaina ‘Bijjalaraya Charita. All of them need a careful examination.

According to Basava Purana, Basava was the son of Madiraja and his wife Madalambika, belonged to the Brahmin caste, and resided at Bagewadi in the Bijapur district. To recompense the couple’s piety, Nandi was born on earth as their son Basava, at the command of Siva, to resuscitate the declining Saiva faith and to counteract the evil influences of Jainism. In his eighth year, when Madiraja attempted to invest Basava with the sacred thread, the latter objected to it as a ceremony involving the worship of Surya. Basava was a special devotee of Siva and he declined to accept any other as his Guru. He propounded a new doctrine and mode of worshipping Siva, in which the Linga and the Nandi were given prominence. His piety and knowledge of scriptures impressed Baladeva, the Prime Minister (Dandanayaka) of Bijjala. Baladeva gave his daughter Gangadevi or Gangamba in marriage to him. His political influence and his religious doctrine excited local antipathy and he was forced to flee to Kappadi and spend some time there, in meditation of Siva, who instructed him in the faith, through the local God, Sahgamesvara. Meanwhile, Baladeva died and Bijjala summoned Basava into ministerial office, admiring him for his ability and virtues. Basava went to Kalyani with his sister, Nagalambika, and assumed the combined office of Prime Minister, Commander-in-chief and Treasurer. Bijjala’s sister, Nilalochana, married Basava. Basava’s unmarried sister, according to "Basava Purana," being Parvati’s incarnation, gave birth to a son, by the grace of Siva: the child being the incarnation of Siva’s son, Shanmukha. It was he who later on came to be known as Channa Basava, who aided Basava in the propagation of his new faith.

Basava’s popularity, according to "Basava purana," was largely due to numerous miracles, wrought by his spiritualism: once, he converted grain into pearls, and at another time, he fed multitudes, healed the sick and restored the dead to life. With reference to Basava’s wife, something like the disrobing of Drowpadi in the Mahabharata occurred; similar miraculous divine help to her was referred to in the "Channa Basava Purana."

Basava’s official position and generosity to his adherents made his creed popular and attractive. He had many followers from all castes. He ordained a great order of many priests, called Jangamas. The Jain King and Manchana, a truant Virasaiva, conspired and designed assassination upon Basava, who, therefore, had to flee with his followers for safety. The King pursued him, but met with a woeful defeat at Basava’s hands. Once again, Basava returned, at the King’s personal request, and was reinstated in his old office. A complete and hearty reconciliation between Basava and the King was, however, impossible. Misunderstandings were brewing between them. The King attempted to suppress Basava’s followers. He got blinded Halleyaga and Madhuvayya, two devotees of Basava. Basava retired from the field of activities and went to Kudali Sangamesvara, cursing Kalyana. He, however, instructed Jaggadeva, before leaving Kalyana, to slay the king. Jaggadeva hesitated to carry out his master’s orders, but his mother spurred him on. With two followers, he went to the King’s court, the ‘bull’ having cleared and led the way, stabbed the Ruler in the open court, announced to the public why he killed the King and soon after committed suicide. Basava’s curse worked upon and led Kalyana to ruin and degradation. Then, he proceeded to Kudali Sangamesvara, the junction of the Krishna and Tungabhadra or at the confluence of the Malprabha with Krishna, and there, was absorbed in God, amidst heavenly rejoicings.

The same narration, with some changes, is available in "Channa Basava Kalagnana." According to it, on Basava’s flight and absorption into the deity, Bijjala, who was not yet dead, appointed Channa Basava to succeed him in the post of Prime Minister. After this, two devotees, Halleja and Madhuveja were tortured till they died. In revenge for this, two torch-bearers, Jaggadeva and Bommena, killed Bijjala. Meanwhile, Channa Basava was pursued by Bijjala’s son-in-law, and, in the battle which ensued, the, pursuers were killed and the King himself was taken captive. Channa Basava, however, restored the slain army to life, at the request of Nagalambika, his mother, and admonished the King not to persecute the Vira Saivas, as his father had done, and anointed him and sent him to Kalyana to rule over the country. The said Purana describes Channa Basava as the incarnation of Pranava–‘Om’, begotten on Nagalambika by Siva’s spirit. The spiritual origin of Nagalambika’s pregnancy was once questioned, but soon explained, as being a divine miracle. According to this Purana, the religious portion of the Vira Saiva movement was under Channa Basava’s direction, Basava giving it the needful political support. He shaped the creed of the sect and the direction of its adherents. He was a great writer and reputed author of "Misrarpana," "Rudrabharata Srushti" and others. The Purana hints that he was superior to Basava in spiritual power. Channa Basava, thus, was wholly a religious character, although the secular authority of Basava was most instrumental in the augmentation of the Vira Saiva sect in the Kanarese countries.

Far different was the version given in the Jain work, entitled "Bijjalaraya Charita," of Dharani Pandita–(1650 A.D.) As regards Basava’s relations with Bijjala, it stated that Basava’s influence with the King was due to the fact that Basava had married his sister, Padmini, also called Padmavati, who was celebrated for her beauty. It mentioned that Basava’s father, Madiraja, was the court astrologer at Bijjala’s court. Because of his relationship, Bijjala appointed Basava as his Senapathi or Dandanayaka. It said that when, first, Basava rebelled against Bijjala, Basava fell into a tank and was taken out of it, at the orders of Bijjala, pardoned, and reappointed to his office. Later, while Bijjala was warring against Bhoja and camping at Kolhapur, Basava sent a Jangama in the disguise of a Jain with a poisoned mango fruit. Bijjala was thus poisoned to death treacherously. His son, Immadi Bijjala, (though not mentioned in any of the Inscriptions), was enjoined by his father, before his death, to wreak vengeance upon Basava. Immadi, accordingly, ordered Basava to be apprehended, and all the jangamas, wherever seized, to be executed. On hearing of this, Basava fled; and, being pursued, went towards the Malabar Coast and sought refuge in a place called "Vrishabhapura." There, in course of time, Basava drowned himself in a well, while his wife poisoned herself. After Immadi’s resentment was allayed, Channa Basava presented Basava’s treasures to the King and was admitted to royal favour and appointed to a ministerial office at court.

This Jain book described Bijjala as an embellisher of the Jain line of Kings, as "the moon to the ocean of Jaina religion" and "the promoter of the prosperity of the Jainas." There was, besides, a vivid description of the manner in which converts were secured for the new faith by Basava’s adherents, though a good part of it seems to be actuated by sectarian bias.

A study of the course of Vira Saivism is interesting. In the time of the King Bijjala of the Kalachurya line, in the 12^th century, his Minister Basava gave a popular, if not political turn to Saivism. The ground had been already prepared for him by a succession of Saiva teachers, who had dared to preach the equality of men in the eyes of Siva, whom they had proclaimed as the one God. Originating in Kalyana, the Vira Saiva faith soon spread through the north-west of Mysore, and according to tradition, within sixty years of Basava’s death (1168-1228 A.D.) it was embraced from Ulavi to Sholapur, from Balehalli or Bale-hannur to Sivaganga. It was the State religion of the Wodeyars of Mysore from 1399-1610 A. D., and of the Nayakas of Keladi, Ikkeri or Bednur from 1550-1763. In the Bijapur and Dharwar districts and possibly in the neighbouring parts of the Nizam’s Dominions and Mysore, the Vira Saiva sect appeared to be steadily gaining ground. The principal Saiva or Lingayat Maths in the Mysore country, today, are the Murigi Math at Chittal-droog, the Balchannur Math, and a host of others of lesser significance. And Basava, Channa Basava and their followers, Prabhudeva, Madirala, Machaiya, Poetess Mahadevi and othets are revered by the Vira Saivas.

In this connection, a passing reference must be made to Fleet’s conjecture that neither Basava nor Channa Basava could have been the founder of Vira Saivism, in the light of the absence of Inscriptional evidences, and his argument about the real originator of the religion being Ekantada Ramayya. But, this theory is not sound, in view of the weighty literary evidences. No Vira Saiva book deals with Ekantada Ramayya!

A word about the yeoman service that the great founder of Vira Saivism and his adherents did for the progress of the country. They not only gave South India a sound and liberal religion, but showed the world the hollowness of bigoted faith in the caste system, pilgrimage and penance. They alleviated the lot of child-widows by advocating their re-marriage. They popularised post-puberty marriages. They enriched their language, Kanarese, and produced a vast literature, popular and cultural. They were energetic and progressive merchants and wealthy traders, and they directed all their strength and energy to the commercial prosperity of their country. So, in every field of activity, in religion, in sociology, in literature or in commerce, the Vira Saivas contributed to their country’s general amelioration. Their services cannot be over-estimated; nor will they pass into oblivion, at any time.

Such is the brief history of the origin and growth of one of the sanest and most powerful and influential branches of Saivism in South India, in the 12th century. It was, as generally agreed upon, a very popular religion in its day, not only by reason of its humane spirit and democratic outlook, but also its practical and simple principles. Simple living and high thinking were the ringing watchwords of its worthy founder, Basava, whose views were, however, far in advance of the times. He believed that the religious life of the people was closely allied to their social welfare. In the words of Rice, he carried on a social revolution, side by side with religious reformation.

In its simplicity of views, Vira Saivism resembled Buddhism. In its dignity of doctrines, it was like Hinduism. It had Christian love and Islamic peace and order. It was modernised and purified Saivism, meant chiefly for the Kanarese and Telugu countries, in the 12th Century A.D. It was meant to counteract the evil effects of later Jainism, bordering on atheism. Its total denial ofBrahman supremacy and caste system, and its advocacy of post-puberty and widow remarriages were praiseworthy. It was one more gem of a religion added to the spiritual diadem of India.