6.2. The concept of Dharma (righteousness)

[Full title: Human values: A mirror to Indian culture (2): Dharma]

At the time of completion of education a student was given parting instruction by his teacher where he was asked to follow dharma, dharmam cara' and never to neglect it, dharman na pramaditavyam². Dharma has received utmost attention and fulsome praise in India from sages and seers, thinkers and philosophers, writers and critics. If protected, it protects; if killed, it kills: dharma eva hato hanti dharmo raksati raksitah³. Etymologically dharma means that which sustains, dharanad dharma ity ahuh, dharma is what holds people together, dharmo dharayate prajah. Dharma is made up of two components √dhr [=√धृ, =√dhṛ] 'to sustain' and the suffix man, the active agent, the one, which sustains. It is a set of rules, conventions and customs, which lay down norms for individual and social conduct and behaviour and which are sanctified by tradition. They form the bedrock of social order. Without these the society turning into a medley of unruly individuals would just disintegrate. Man not observing them would do anything but revert to his original status of animal, dharmena hinah pasubhih samanah³. Efforts were on since the early past to define this rather elusive term. Manu, the earliest law-giver has recorded its ten characteristics which are contentment, forgiveness, self-control, abstention from unrighteously appropriating anything, (obedience to the rules of) purification, coercion of the organs, wisdom, knowledge of the (supreme soul), truthfulness and abstention from anger:

dhrtih ksama damo steyam saucam indriyanigrahahi dhir vidya satyam akrodho dasakam dharmalaksanami The Hitopadesa reduces the list to eight: ijyadhyayanadanani tapah satyam dhrtih ksamal alobha iti margo 'yam dharmasyastavidhah smrtahii' Sacrifice, study (of the scriptures), charity, penance, truth, fortitude, forgiveness and absence of greed is the eightfold path of dharma. The Bhagavatapurana reduces the number by one; it records seven characteristics of dharma: ahimsa satyam asteyam akamakrodhalobhatal bhutapriyahiteha ca dharmo' yam sarvavarnikahi Non-violence, truth, non-stealing, absence of passion, anger and greed and the desire to do what is good or agreeable to beings is dharma for all the castes. The figure of seven is reduced to five from his list of ten by Manu. These five characteristics are "abstention from injuring (creatures), truthfulness, abstention from unlawfully appropriating (the goods of others), purity and control of the organs": ahimsa satyam asteyam saucam indriyanigrahahi etam samasikam dharmam caturvarnye 'bravin Manuhi⁹ Bringing down the number four from five he says that the Veda, the sacred tradition, the customs of the virtuous men and what is dear to one's own self constitute dharma: vedah smrtih sadacarah svasya ca priyam atmanahi etac caturvidham prahuh saksad dharmasya laksanami110 The Mahabharata picking up the common denominator of all these declares only one to be the distinguishing feature of it which it describes as its essence, dharmasarvasva which is that one should not do to others that which one would not like to encounter oneself: atmanah pratikulani paresam na samacaret. It also explains it as just anrsamsya¹¹, compassion which it calls the best of the virtues, paro dharmah or arjava, straightforwardness, arjavam dharmam ity ahuh¹2 Mr

Dharma 101 The approach for succinctness in defining dharma seems to Jil have gained in appeal which is in evidence in Kanada's explanation of it as yato 'bhyudayanihsreyasasiddhih sa dharmah13, that which leads to rise (material prosperity) and final beatitude is dharma and that of Jaimini codanalaksano'rtho dharmah, scriptural injunction is dharma Emperor Asoka defines dharma, he calls it dhamma, the Pali form of it, as compassion, charity, truthfulness, purity, goodness, gentleness; daya, dane, sace, socave, madave, sadhave 14. This is in essentials the same as enunciated by Manu. Dharma, therefore, signifies, according to Manu and Asoka, a set of ethical principles termed rightly as the common property of all religions. A word capable of many shades of meaning, dharma also signifies rule or practice. When it is said krte ca pratikurvita esa dharmah sanatanah 15, one should return the good deed done, it precisely has the same meaning; esa dharmah sanatanah means 'it is the age-old rule'. Very often the term signifies duty. Manu states the dharmas, duties, in Krtayuga are different from those in Treta. The same is the case with Dvapara and Kali. When the Bhagavadgita says svadharme nidhanam sreyah paradharmo bhayavahah16, it is better to lose one's life while doing one's duty going with one's station in life than to take on the duty prescribed for a different station, it has that very meaning. Kalidasa too uses the word in that very meaning when he says sasthamsavrtter api dharma esah¹7, it is the duty of one who draws one sixth of the income of the subjects as the State revenue. As one of the four ends of life, the caturvarga, it means righteousness, good deeds. It is this, which is said to be the only friend who follows a person even in death: eka eva suhrd dharmo nidhane 'py anuyati yah18. There could be occasions when duties may conflict with each other. One may have to choose between two duties and prioritize one over the other. To falter in such situations is not uncommon. Kalidasa describes in the very beginning of his Raghuvamsa a situation which even a king of the calibre of Dilipa could not

dhrtih ksama damo steyam saucam indriyanigrahahi dhir vidya satyam akrodho dasakam dharmalaksanami The Hitopadesa reduces the list to eight: ijyadhyayanadanani tapah satyam dhrtih ksama alobha iti margo 'yam dharmasyastavidhah smrtahi' Sacrifice, study (of the scriptures), charity, penance, truth, fortitude, forgiveness and absence of greed is the eightfold path of dharma. The Bhagavatapurana reduces the number by one; it records seven characteristics of dharma: ahimsa satyam asteyam akamakrodhalobhata bhutapriyahiteha ca dharmo' yam sarvavarnikahi Non-violence, truth, non-stealing, absence of passion, anger and greed and the desire to do what is good or agreeable to beings is dharma for all the castes. The figure of seven is reduced to five from his list of ten by Manu. These five characteristics are "abstention from injuring (creatures), truthfulness, abstention from unlawfully appropriating (the goods of others), purity and control of the organs": ahimsa satyam asteyam saucam indriyanigrahahi 9 etam samasikam dharmam caturvarnye 'bravin Manuhu Bringing down the number four from five he says that the Veda, the sacred tradition, the customs of the virtuous men and what is dear to one's own self constitute dharma: vedah smrtih sadacarah svasya ca priyam atmanahi etac caturvidham prahuh saksad dharmasya laksanami10 The Mahabharata picking up the common denominator of all these declares only one to be the distinguishing feature of it which it describes as its essence, dharmasarvasva which is that one should not do to others that which one would not like to encounter oneself: atmanah pratikulani paresam na samacaret. It also explains it as just anrsamsyall, compassion which it calls the best of the virtues, paro dharmah or arjava, straightforwardness, arjavam dharmam ity ahuh¹2. CC 0. Prof. Satya Vrat Shastri Collection, New Delhi. Digitized by eGangotri

Dharma 101 The approach for succinctness in defining dharma seems to it have gained in appeal which is in evidence in Kanada's explanation of it as yato 'bhyudayanihsreyasasiddhih sa A dharmah13, that which leads to rise (material prosperity) and final beatitude is dharma and that of Jaimini codanalaksano'rtho dharmah, scriptural injunction is dharma Emperor Asoka defines dharma, he calls it dhamma, the Pali form of it, as compassion, charity, truthfulness, purity, goodness, gentleness; daya, dane, sace, socave, madave, sadhave 14. This is in essentials the same as enunciated by Manu. Dharma, therefore, signifies, according to Manu and Asoka, a set of ethical principles termed rightly as the common property of all religions. A word capable of many shades of meaning, dharma also signifies rule or practice. When it is said krte ca pratikurvita esa dharmah sanatanah15, one should return the good deed done, it precisely has the same meaning; esa dharmah sanatanah means 'it is the age-old rule'. Very often the term signifies duty. Manu states the dharmas, duties, in Krtayuga are different from those in Treta. The same is the case with Dvapara and Kali. When the Bhagavadgita says svadharme nidhanam sreyah paradharmo bhayavahah16, it is better to lose one's life while doing one's duty going with one's station in life than to take on the duty prescribed for a different station, it has that very meaning. Kalidasa too uses the word in that very meaning when he says sasthamsavrtter api dharma esah17, it is the duty of one who draws one sixth of the income of the subjects as the State revenue. As one of the four ends of life, the caturvarga, it means righteousness, good deeds. It is this, which is said to be the only friend who follows a person even in death: eka eva suhrd dharmo nidhane 'py anuyati yah18. There could be occasions when duties may conflict with each other. One may have to choose between two duties and prioritize one over the other. To falter in such situations is not uncommon. Kalidasa describes in the very beginning of his Raghuvamsa a situation which even a king of the calibre of Dilipa could not

handle properly. Well, it is the duty, the sacred obligation, of a husband to satisfy his wife sexually after the period of menstruation. The king with his mind intent on this was in a hurry not to violate this obligation. This led to his not showing due respect to the divine cow Surabhi by not circumambulating her on the way back to the earth after having waited upon Indra, thus incurring her curse of not being blessed with progeny till such time as he were to propitiate her daughter. Now here was a situation where Dilipa had two duties, one towards his wife and the other towards the celestial cow. While it was dharma to be united with the wife, it was also dharma, sadhvacarana, to be respectful to the divine cow. Caught in this cleft stick he should have exercised his judgement. Showing respect to divine beings, devayoni, is more important than hurrying to meet the manusyayoni, even if that would have implied transgression of duty, dharmalopa, temporarily. In the Mahabharata a situation arose when Yudhisthira in the game of dice put on stake even his wife Draupadi and lost her after having lost himself first. Draupadi put the question pointedly to the charioteer Pratikamin deputed to bring her to the Court as to whether a person who had staked himself and lost has the authority over another person to stake him/her. With Pratikamin reporting back to the Court what Draupadi had told him and Yudhisthira keeping silent, Duryodhana felt that it would be better if she were to put this question to the Court in person herself. Even though in periods and in one garment to cover her shame, she accompanied Pratikamin deputed again to bring her and stood in front of the father-in-law Dhrtarastra. It was from there that she was dragged by Duhsasana under the orders of Duryodhana to the Court where none of those present including Bhisma, Vidura, Drona, Krpa and the other dignitaries gave any answer. At that point of time rose Vikarna, one of the younger brothers of Duryodhana to defend Draupadi. The thrust of his argument was that since Draupadi belonged to all the Pandava brothers, just one among them had no authority to stake her. This met with rebuttal from Karna on the ground that since the other Pandavas

Dharma 103 had been staked and had been lost, they had forfeited their right over Draupadi. Moreover, Yudhisthira had staked all his possessions, which included Draupadi. So the question as to whether he had the authority to stake her had become redundant. Even being dragged and insulted by Duhsasana Draupadi repeated her question and wanted an answer for it. It is here that Bhisma came forward with the remark that the way of dharma was inscrutable, defying even the intelligence of great thinkers. He expressed his helplessness in answering the question effectively and directed her instead to Yudhisthira. The story goes on reinforcing the view that there could be situations when it could be difficult to interpret dharma. Dharma also is taken to signify right conduct, the conduct that conforms to accepted social norms which could include giving way first to Brahmins, cows and kings, not sleeping during the twilights and studying during them, thou-theeing the elders or addressing them by their name 19. It also implies observing proper etiquette. It is this which makes old texts enjoin not scratching the head with joined palms 20 or urinating in the direction of the sun and the fire 21 (they being taken as divinities) and urinating away from a habitation and throwing water with the feet's washings away from it 22 and sleeping with the head in the northern and the western directions 23. The etiquette also includes not speaking when not asked 24. It has been emphasized time and again that dharma is to be followed as a course of life with no mundane motive. One who tries to milk it or is assailed with doubt about it on having followed it does not get its fruit: na dharmaphalam apnoti yo dharmam dogdhum icchati yas cainam sankate krtva nastikyat papacetanah125 Declares the Mahabharata: dharma should not be doubted if it has not yielded the (desired result): na phalabhavad dharmah sankitavyah26. Phala is not for what it is resorted to. Those who remain steadfast in it meet with no misfortune. Even if they were to be striving to realize a particular aim, they should begin first with dharma for the realization of the aim, the aim is concomitant

to it as is the nectar to the heaven 27. What is important is that one should keep on doing good deeds. These by themselves would lead to the realization of the desired goal. There should be no reason to doubt the efficacy of dharma. In the course of the discussion about dharma a point that needs special attention is that a dharma which comes in the way of another dharma is no dharma, it is a bad path, that which does not step on the other dharma is (real) dharma: dharmam yo yo badhate dharmo na sa dharmah kuvartma tati avirodhat tu yo dharmah sa dharmah satyavikramall 28 The sage Lomasa in the course of his conversation with Yudhisthira narrates the episode of King Sibi of Usinara to whom a pigeon, in reality Agni in disguise, repaired for rescue from an eagle, in reality Indra in disguise, chasing it, the divinities out to test the devotion of the king to dharma. When the king even though pressed hard by the eagle did not let go the pigeon on the score that it was his duty, dharma, to offer protection to a being who had taken refuge with him, the eagle makes the point that to keep a being, meaning itself, without food, the food that nature has earmarked for it, would be adharma.Were that, the saranagataraksana, protecting the one come for rescue to be treated as dharma, then it would be that kind of dharma which would come in the way of the other dharma, the dharma of not keeping a being tormented by hunger away from its food 29. It is situations such as the above that make dharma almost intractable. Rightly has it been said that it is as difficult to divine dharma as is to divine the feet of a serpent: aher iva hi dharmasya padam duhkham gavesitum 30. It is this which has prompted thinkers to proclaim that even truth which is designated as the highest form of dharma and the deviation from which as impermissible that "that is truth that leads to the well-being of others, all else is technical truth", na satyam kevalam satyam anrtam na tathanrtam, hitam yat sarvalokasya tadrtam sesam anyatha.31 "Truth is no truth in itself. Nor is untruth so. Whatever is good for all is truth. The rest is otherwise."

Dharma 105 Dharma cannot be understood by reading about it alone; na dharmah paripathena sakyo bharata veditum³². It has to be put into practice. It is this, which sustains society, dharanad dharma ity ahur dharmo dharayate prajah. Those who are not motivated fort it are like shrivelled ones among grains and the white ants among the winged ones: pulaka iva dhanyesu putrika iva paksisui tadvidhas te manusyanam yesam dharmo na karanamiSS3 One needs to have no companion in dharma. Alone one may go with it: eka eva cared dharmam, nasti dharme sahayata 34. So long is one's life, one should go on following dharma. Dharma is broadly of two types, the pravrttilaksana and the nivrttilaksana 35, the do's and the don'ts, something which one should do and something which one should not. Among them again roles may change, the circumstances warranting their reversal. What is adharma may don the mantle of dharma in certain situations and at certain times. Even theft, lie and violence, which are condemned otherwise, could be resorted to as dharma, an act of piety, in certain situations like when one's life or the life of innocent persons is in danger. It is situations like these which lend legitimacy to the sages like Visvamitra eating dog's meat or messiahs of non-violence like Mahatma Gandhi resorting to mercy killing of a cow to enable it to escape mortal pain or Yudhisthira telling Drona who was blasting his army that Asvatthaman had died. This type of dharma which in normal circumstances would have been adharma inviting strong censure, the author of the Mahabharata terms as avasthika: adanam anrtam himsa dharmo hy avasthikah smrtah³6 the term being explained by the commentator Nilakantha as avasthavisese bhavah, peculiar to a situation, pranatyagadau adharmasyapi steyader dharmatvat, when there is risk to life even a condemnable act, adharma, like theft and so on being dharma. Further, dharma can be divided into duties or meritorious acts needed to be practised by all right-thinking people and the duties and activities peculiar to certain families, the kuladharmas, the

family traditions which would put a spanner in the acts of those who may go astray. They exercise a great hold on the family, the clan, the tribe and the community whatever the differences among their members 37 and ensure strict adherence to certain timehonoured norms. Interestingly, it is this community living in Bali in Indonesia that came effectively in the way of the spread of Islam when it was sweeping the other islands of the archipelago. An odd man or two in it could not dare conversion, however inclined for it, for fear of excommunication from the community, rendering his/her life pretty hard. The scriptures lay down emphatically that a person must go on following dharma in whatever station of life even when in dire straits. He has to be even in his dealings with all. For this outer symbols (like ochre robes or matted hair) do not matter: duhkhito 'pi cared dharmam yatra kutrasrame ratahi samah sarvesu bhutesu na lingam dharmakaranam 1138 Dharma yields what one may not have even thought of, asankalpyam acintyan ca phalam dharmad avapyate. It is dharma, which affords protection in all situations. Kausalya invokes this very dharma when she bids adieu to her son Rama leaving for exile for fourteen years: yam palayasi dharmam tvam pritya ca niyamena cal sa vai raghavasardula dharmas tvam abhiraksatu 1139 "O ye the tiger among the descendants of the race of Raghu, may that dharma which thou had been following joyfully and regularly, protect thee." REFERENCES 1. Taittiriyopanisad, 1.11. 2. ibid. 3. Manusmrti, 8.15. 4. Mbh.(Mahabharata), Karna. 69.58. Also see Ramayana: dharanad dharmam ity ahur dharmena vidhrtah prajah, Uttara, 59.7-8. 5. Hitopadesa, Kathamukha, 25.

Dharma 107 6. Manusmrti, 6.9 7. Hitopadesa, 1.8. 8. Bhagavatapurana, 11.17.21 9. Manu, 10.63. 10. ibid., 2.12. 11. Mbh., Vana. 213.30. 12. ibid., Anu. 142.30. 13. Yogasutra, 4.100. 14. Delhi Topra Pillar Inscription No.7, line 12. 15. Ramayana, 5.1.106. 16. 3.35. 17. Abhijnanasakuntala, V.4. 18. Hitopadesa, 1.66. 19. Mbh., Santi. 193.25. 20. ibid., Anu. 10469. 21. ibid., 104.75. 22. ibid., 104.82. 23. ibid., Anu., 104.48. 24. ibid., Santi., 287.35. 25. ibid., Vana., 31.6. 26. ibid., 31.38. 27. ibid., nahi dharmad apaity arthah svargalokad ivamrtam, Udyoga., 37.48. 28. ibid., 131.11. 29. ibid., Chappter 131. 30. ibid., Santi., 132.20. 31. Bharatamanjari, santi., 402. 32. Mbh., Santi., 260.3. 33. ibid., 181.7. 34. ibid., 193.32. 35. ibid., 241.6. 36. ibid., 36.11. 37. ibid., Vana., 243.2. 38. Hitopadesa, 1.91. 39. Ramayana, 2.25.3.