Chapter 7 - Education and Literature during the Gajapati dynasty

Education in ancient India was mainly the concern of the individual and the educational institutions maintained by the government for the public were very rare. The private teacher living on voluntary contributions of the parents of his pupils was the basis of the system. "Corporate educational organisations were first evolved in connection with the Buddhist monasteries and they grew into importance as centres of education under the patronage of kings."1 The temple and the agrahara later carried on the traditions of learning once peculiar to the Buddhist monasteries. The Malkapuram inscription of Rudramadevi supplies us with interesting details about a college at Mandaram established by Visvesvara Sambhu, the famous Saiva teacher of the day. "At Mandaram the teacher established a temple for the God Visvesvara, built a monastery and a feeding house, settled many brahmanas and gave the village the name Visvesvara Golaki." The land of the village he divided into three parts and gave one for the maintenance of the students. "There were three teachers appointed for teaching the Vedas-Rg, Yajus and Saman, and five teachers appointed for teaching logic, literature, and the agamas." This inscription of the Kakatiya queen is dated A.D. 1261. Another inscription* from Simhacalam temple dated A.D. 1291 which records the donations of Narayana Senapati and the pariksa of Kalinga-desa under the Eastern Ganga king Pratapa Vira Narasimhadeva, enables us to infer that things were not different in Orissa in that period. 1 1. Altekar: Education in Ancient India, p. 246. 2. A.R.E., 1917, p. 122 ff. 3. Ibid. 4. Annual Report on South Indian Epigraphy, No. 292 of 1899. The inscription records some of the arrangements made by Narayana Senapati, son of Gopala Mahasenapati, the pariksa of Kalinga-desa. G. 19 Kamdava-Taittiriya-sakhalu-cadivimccedi ghadisasulaina brahmalu iddariki ... 3 nibamdhanalu. Purana-vyakarana-kavya-natak = abhidhanalu pathimpimccedt vidvad = brahmanulu muvuraku ... 5 Matha-paricaryaku (adhyapakaviprah) ......1.

146 GAJAPATIS OF ORISSA Agraharas, as has been said already, were also centres of higher education.5 Some of the copper-plate grants of the Gajapati monarchs which record donations to learned brahmanas enable us to glean the curriculam of the higher education of the day. The Ciruvrolu plates of Hamvira mention the names of a number of learned brahmanas and the chief donee was one AubhalaBhatta of Naisadham family. He is described as a master of several languages and well versed in the Vedas and the Bhasyas. Similarly the Gopinathpur inscription of Kapilendra mentions the Mimamsa Vedantika poet Jagali. The Anantavaram plates record the grant of an agrahara by Prataparudra to 128 brahmanas who were profound scholars in different branches of knowledge. 7 a From this it can be inferred that the Puranas, Smrtis, logic and metaphysics were studied by the students of those days. Literature: The Suryavamsi Gajapati dynasty though a short-lived one (of about 120 years) contributed a great deal to the progress of literature. Their vast kingdom was inhabited by different linguistic groups, the Telugu, the Oriya, and the Bengalee. But Sanskrit was the language of the learned throughout the country. Caitanya, the great Vaisnava apostle of the date wanted like the Buddha to popularise his religion among the lower classes. To cater to their spiritual needs he adopted the vernacular language instead of Sanskrit as medium of his teachings. Several 5. These advanced studies presuppose the ability to read and write. It appears, as has been observed by Dr. Altekar (Rastrakutas, and their Times, p. 399), that primary education was imparted to the boys either by the village priest or by the village accountant. 6. Ciruvrolu plates, Bharati, Nov. 1941, p. 521 ff. Bhasasu sarvasvapi Saradayate vedesu sarvesu Caturmukhayate bhasy=adi Sastresu Phanisvarayate 7. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. LXIX. part I, 1900, p. 175 ff, verse, 29. "Mimamsakasya nigam-anta-vicara-para samcaranasya kavi pamdita Gopinadhatjatasya Jagali-kaveh" 7 a. Anantavaram plates: Adau namnam-Atumudi-pravidita-dharanideva-ramy-agrahare vagbhih Vedair-viprais = sadamga-srti-pathana-Sarojaana-praudhakirte vakya-pramana-sphuta-pada-padavi-vyakrti-khyata-vrttaih bhaganam = asta-vimsaty = adhika-sata-mita-klupta-samkhya vibhati.

EDUCATION AND LITERATURE 147 people became converts and they in their newly inculcated zeal for bhakti, produced several works on religion in their simple rustic style in local languages and thereby enriched the vernacular literature of that age. Hence, the literature of the period is mainly religious in character. It does not mean that there were no works of secular nature, but a majority of works produced at that time were religious in character. I. SANSKRIT: Sanskrit was the language of the learned, and specially there seems to have been a craving for Sanskritic studies both among the brahmanas and the ksatriyas. They looked down upon works in vernacular languages. Inscriptions: Excepting the copper axe-head inscription of the Purusottama Gajapati all the other charters are in Sanskrit language. The Gopinathapur inscription 10 is in Oriya characters but the language is Sanskrit. All the copper-plate charters of Prataparudra are invariably written in Sanskrit and Nagari script. The prasastis of these inscriptions written in high flown Sanskrit style form the best specimens of the literature of the kind during the period." They were undoubtedly compositions of poets of a very high order patronized by the Gajapatis, though the names of most of these have not come down to us. g Writers of the Period: The kings were not merely patrons of literature but were themselves highly accomplished scholars and writers. About Kapilendra we do not have much information. A man who had spent the whole of his life in war can be least expected to have any time to devote to the 'arts of peace.' But his son Purusottama was a highly learned man. 12 Purusottama 8. Sarasvativildsam which is supposed to have been a composition of the Gajapati Prataparudra is an addition to the Dharma Sastra literature and it also serves well as an illustration of works of secular nature. 9. Indian Antiquary, Vol. I. p. 355. 10. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. LXIX, part I, 1900, p. 175 ff. 11. Generally the inscriptions are in verse occasionally interspersed with small sentences in prose. Most of the verses were written in Anustub, Indravraja, Upendravraja, Drutavilambita, Sardula, Indravamsa and Pancacamara metres. 12. Sarasvativilasam pays a glorious tribute to his learning. Vira Sri-Purusottamo Gajapatir-vidvat = sabh = abhyantare seso vikraminam kathasu nitaram ses = o'hibhuso vibhuh, -

148 GAJAPATIS OF ORISSA took keen interest in almost all the branches of Sanskrit studies. He is credited with the composition of a dandaka¹s (stotra). He also wrote the 'Abhinava Gitagovinda'14 in about 800 slokas. The manuscript of this work in Oriya character is available in the collections of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.14 a Purusottamadeva after a careful study of the Puranas viz. Visnu, Brahma, Padma, Saiva, Bhagavata, Naradiya, Markandeya, Agni, Bhavisyat, Brahmakaivarta, Linga, Varaha, Skanda, Kurma, Matsya, Garuda and Brahmanda, composed a work called Namamalika 15 on the merits of chanting Hari's name. Being a devot worshipper of God Gopala at Niladri (Jagannatha), he composed a manuel describing the details connected with his worship called Gopalarcanavidhi. This work forms part of a bigger work known as Agamakalpataru.16 Among the published works of Purusottama Gajapati may be mentioned two Sanskrit lexicons, the Haravati and Trikanda- sesam.16 a He collected the words that did not find mention in Amarasimha's Namalinganusasanam and wrote the latter lexicon to serve as an appendix to that work. In the Padyavati of Rupa Gosvamin, an anthology of verses, one verse supposed to have been written by an 'Autkala'16 b is ascribed to Purusottamadeva. Since some of the manuscripts 13. A manuscript of this work is available with a pandit at Puri. See Mr. Mukherji's article, Indian Hist. Quarterly, Vol. XXI, No. 1, March, 1955, p. 34 ff. 14. Haraprasada Sastri, No. 4091, Des. Cat. of Mss., in the collections of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. VII, Kavya Mss. 14 a. Iti Sri Purusottamadeva Gajapati Maharaja-krte abhinava-Gita-Govinda-mahakavye 8 = Ananda-Mukundo-nama dasamas = sargah 15. 9448. Des. Cat. of Mss. in the collections of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Iti Sri Gajapati Purusottamadeva samgrahita Namamalika samepta. 16. 3067. Tri. Cat. of Dis. Cat. of Sanskrit Mss., 1919-20; 1921-22. Itt eri Agamakalpatarau Vaisnava - skandhe Gopala-sakhayam mantrapallave Maharajadhiraja Purusottamadeva viracite Gopal = arcana-vidhih. 16 a. Mukta may=ati-madhura-masrn-avadata cchdy=adhiraga-taralam = alasad = guna-srih sadhvi satam bhajatu kamtham = asa priy=eva Haravali viracita Purusottamena. - 16 b. Alaukikatvad = Amarah sva-kose nayani namani sam = ullilekha vilokya tair = apy = adhund-pracaram ayam prayatnah Purusottamasya" Iti Sri Purusottamadeva viracitas-Trikanda-ses-abhidhana-kosas = samaptah.

EDUCATION AND LITERATURE 149 give the full name of the author as 'Gajapati Purusottamadeva, 17 the 'Autkala' of the anthology may be identical with Purusottama. Prataparudra: Purusottama was succeeded by his son Prataparudra, the last Gajapati monarch on the throne of Orissa. Inscriptions are not tired of praising his learning. In the Anantavaram plates, for instance, reference is made to him as the Kalpaksoniruha or the 'wishing-tree' of the poets and the learned and a dana-saunda 18 and Sarasvativilasam refers to his proficiency in the vidyas or arts. 19 He was himself a great scholar and writer and patronized several men of learning. He is credited with the composition of 1. Kautuka Cintamani, 2. Nirnaya Sangraha, 3. Praudha Pratapa Martanda, 4. Sarasvativilasam. The third of the above list is available in manuscripts. 19 a The work is divided into five prakaranas viz., Padarthanirnaya, Vatsaradi-nirupana, Tithi-nirupana, Vrata-nirnaya, and Visnubhakti. Therein he expressly mentions Hemadri, Kalpataru, Ratnakara, Mitaksara, Madhaviya, Anantabhatta, Smrti-candrika, Apararka, Parijata, Kaladarsa, etc., as his authorities.20 Sarasvativilasam is published but its authorship is disputed." Literary Circle of Prataparudra: Learned men from adjoining parts of India 22 flocked to the court of Prataparudra and there 17. 15-7. No. 163-3. No. 224 Padyavali. 18. Anantavaram plates. Andhra Patrika Annual, 1928, p. 176. Kalpa-ksoniruham yam kavi-budha-nikaro-dana-saunda prabhavam lokah-piyusa-bhanum sakala-jana-manoranjan = odara-vesam kamtas saksid = Ratisam = yutam vd. 19. Sarasvativilasam, p. 10. Kamalabhavam = apt praudha-vidya Svayam Vidyadhara sadrs=opi kimkarikrta-Vidyadharah. 19 a. In its colophon, the king is described thus: Gajapati Gaudesvara Navakoti-Karnata-Kalabaragesvara rupa Narayana.. 20. No. 4104, Haraprasada Sastri and Mitra, Notices of Sanskrit Manuscripts, Vol. X, p. 222 ff. 21. See Appendix, II. pp. 299 ff. 22. In the contemporary Bengal, the ruler Hussain Shah was a tyrant and he systematically persecuted brahmanas, specially the learned of the Navadvipa and other places. This policy of persecution forced old Vasudeva Sarvabhauma to seek shelter at the court of Prataparudra (Jayananda, -Caitanya Mangala). 1

150 GAJAPATIS OF ORISSA no scholar was ever denied patronage. The Vidvatsabha or 'the assembly of the learned' of Prataparudra was an impressive gathering of several men of letters well versed in different branches of learning. 1. Vasudeva Sarvabhauma: Among the important scholars of the day the name of 'Sarvabhauma' the great professor of NavyaNyaya stands out prominent. He was the son of Visarada and originally an inhabitant of Navadvipa in Bengal. After completing the study of the Smrtis under his father, tradition affirms that he went to Mithila 24 to learn the niceties of Nyaya dialectics under Paksadhara Misra. During his stay at Mithila he learnt the whole of Tattva-cintamani by heart. After the completion of his studies he passed through the 'Salaka-pariksa 25 with credit and earned for himself the title 'Sarvabhauma'. Then he proceeded to Benares to have his lessons in Vedanta and returned to Navadvipa when he started the 'first school of Nyaya in Bengal.' This school later under the guidance of his student Raghunatha developed into the 23. Nyaya signifies 'logic' and is the name given to one of the Six Darsanas or systems of Hindu philosophy. Its founder was Gautama or Aksapada. The Gautama Sutras composed about 150 B.C. contain the fundamental ideas or principles and a true knowledge of their nature leads to the final emancipation of the soul. It was very popular in India and for a long time served as the basis for all philosophical research. There are two stages in the history of its development. The pricina or the old stage and the navya or the new stage, The Gautama Sutras were commented on by Vatsyayana in the 4 th century AD. and it was later criticised by Dinnaga the Buddhist logician and thinker. It was once again defended by Uddyotakara in his Varttika. The first phase in the history of Nyaya comes to a close with Nyaya Manjari of Jayanta Bhatta. The new phase (navya) commences from the 12 th century with the epoch-making work, Tattva-cintamani of Gangesa of East Bengal. The following are the main differences between this and the old one: while the Pracya Nyaya represented a separate independent system of philosophy, the new one helped us only for the cultivation of precision in thought and expression, but proved philosophically barren. This school of Navya Nyaya was well developed by Vasudeva Sarvabhauma and later by Raghunatha, the founder of Navadvipa school. • 24. Mithila was the principal seat of Hindu learning in the 13 th, 14 th and 15 th centuries A.D., and large numbers of students flocked there from all parts of India to study, specially Logic or the Nyaya Philosophy. 25. At the end of the course the student was subjected to a difficult test called Salaka Pariksa or 'Probe examination' in the course of which he had to explain any leaf of a manuscript that was pierced last by the probe as it was pushed into the manuscript (Dr. Satischandra Vidyabhusana, Hist, of Ind. Logic, p. 461). r

• EDUCATION AND LITERATURE 151 famous university of Navadvipa.26 He was singularly fortunate in having a set of brilliant students, viz. (1) Visvambhara, the later Caitanya (2) Raghunatha, whose Didhiti has been a perennial fountain of inspiration to all lovers of philosophy, (3) Raghunandana, whose famous Smrti compilation Astavimsati-tattva still governs the course of orthodox life in Bengal, and lastly (4) Krsnananda Agamavagisa, who revived the Tantric studies by his compositions.27 Unfortunately, all the works, of Vasudeva Sarvabhauma on Nyaya have not come down to us except his commentary on Tattvacintamani named Saravali. He bade good-bye to his Nyaya studies when as a result of the persecution of Sultan Hussain Shah he was forced to leave Navadvipa to seek shelter at the . court of Prataparudra at Puri. On his arrival at his court Prataparudra 'worshipped him presenting him with a golden throne. '28 At Puri he devoted himself to Vedantic studies and wrote a commentary on Laksmidhara's Advaita-makaranda and Gopinatha Kaviraja informs us that a manuscript of it copied in S. 1551 (A.D. 1629) is still preserved in the Sankara Matha at Puri.29 Early in A.D. 1510, he was converted to Vaisnavism by Caitanyadeva and thenceforward he was a Vaisnava of the truest type. He wrote several stotras in praise of the three 'brother prophets of Bengal' Caitanya, Nityananda and Advaita. He acted as the chief pandit of Prataparudra's court and the superintendent of the Jagannatha temple and was looked upon 'as the universal referee in Orissa specially on points of law, ritual, philosophy and religion.' 2. Vahinipati: Vasudeva's son Janesvara Vahinipati Mahapatra also lived at the court of Prataparudra. The title Vahinipati Mahapatra' was a distinction conferred on him by Prataparudra Gajapati. Like his father he was also a student of Nyaya and wrote a commentary on Aloka (Sabda Khanda) named Uddyota. A copy of this work is still preserved in the library of Sanskrit College, Benares. 26. History of Indian Logic, Appendix G, p. 523 ff. 27. Gopinatha Kaviraja-History of Bibliography of Nydaya-Vaisesika Literature, Sarasvati Bhavan Series, Vol. IV. 28. Sen., Hist. of Ben. Lang. and Literature, p. 476. 29. Sarasvati Bhavan Series. Vol. IV. In the colophon of the work the author calls himself as Gaud = acarya-Sarvabhauma Bhattacaryah,

152 GAJAPATIS OF ORISSA 3. Lolla Laksmidhara Pandita: Another important luminary of the court of Prataparudra was Laksmidhara. He was the son of Visvanatha Bhattaraka and belonged to Harita-gotra.30 In the colophon of his commentary on Saundaryalahari he gives the family history and genealogy as follows: Mahamahopadhyaya Mahadevacarya 1 Laksmidhararaya Author of Sahitya Parijata and Smriti-kalpataru 1 Viruchi Author of Bharatarnava and Sahitya Mimamsa Purusottama Mahopadhyaya Mahamahopadhyaya Laksmanarya Author of Prabhakara Bhutavahini prabhava and Khandana Khandam 1 Mahamahopadhyaya, Vidvatsarvabhauma Visvanatha Bhattaraka Author of Nayavivekadipika Laksmidhara Laksmidhara was a versatile scholar and wrote several works to which the colophon referred to above bears testimony. They are (1) Vacaspativilasa, (2) Yogadipika, (3) Manava Dharma Sastra Dipika, (4) Karnavatamsa, (5) Saundaryalahari Vyakya, etc. All of them are not available to-day, but the number of manuscripts of Saundaryalahari Vyakya in Telugu and other scripts, scattered all over the country, goes to prove the popularity of the work. He appears to have had several students, one of whom was Decayamatya, 31 the assistant of Nadendla Gopaprabhu, ruler of Kondavidu under Krsnadevaraya. 30. Colophon: Saundaryalahari Vydkyd: the Oriental Library, Madras, Vol. 19, p. 7396. 31. Sources, p. 151. Des. Cat. Sans. Mss. in

EDUCATION AND LITERATURE 153 Prataparudra bestowed upon Laksmidhara in A.D. 1500 the village of Anantavaram³2 as an agrahara. He was the real author of Sarasvativilasam, a treatise on 'Dharma Sastra' (Vyavahara), but it was made popular as a work of Prataparudra Gajapati. We may presume that it was the earliest of Laksmidhara's compilations and that he himself passed it on under the name of the king Prataparudra to gain his favour.33 His work 'Advaita-makaranda', a book on philosophy, was commented upon by Vasudeva Sarvabhauma 35, the great Nyaya scholar at the court of Prataparudra. Subsequent to the defeat of Prataparudra at the hands of Krsnadevaraya, Laksmidhara migrated to the court of Vijayanagara, where he continued his literary career. The exact daet of his migration cannot be fixed, yet we can say that it happened sometime before A.D. 1520; for the Kaza and Mangalagiri records of Krsnadevaraya were composed by him as a court poet of Vijayanagara and these records are dated A.D. 1520. So he must have migrated to Vijayanagara sometime before A.D. 1520.35 a pupil Decayamatya, 36 the author of the commentary on Mahimnastava Pancaka informs us that Laksmidhara was well versed in astrology and astronomy and this is borne out by his work entitled Jyotisadarpana. His 4. Divakara: He was a grammarian, patronized by Prataparudra. He was a son of Vaidyesvara of Bharadvaja-gotra and Vajasaneya-sakha. He was the nephew of Narayana Kaviratna and the brother of Govinda and Madhusudana. He was the author of "Abhinava-Gita-Govinda attributed to the Gajapati Purusottama 32. Anantavaram plates of Prataparudra. Andhra Patrika Annual, 1928. 33. See Appendix II. 34. No. 4521. Des. Cat. of Sans. Mss. in the Govt. Oriental Mss. Library, Madras, Vol. IX. 35. History and Bibliography of Nyaya-Vaisesika Literature-Gopinatha Kaviraja, Sarasvati Bhavan Series, Vol. IV. 35 a. One of his verses composed in praise of Krsnadevaraya has come down to us. It runs as follows: Sri-Krana-ksitipala-datta manibhir = vidvat = kavinam grhah nana-ratna vicitra kuttima-bhuvo ratnakaratvam gatah abdhih kevala-vari-para-nilayas = sambhavyate sajjanaih Ambhodhir = jaladhih-payodhir = udadhir = varan = nidhih varidhih. 36. Sources, p. 151. G. 20

154 GAJAPATIS OF ORISSA and Dhurta-carita, a bhana and a hymn in praise of Durga in hundred verses." His more famous work Laksanadarsa,38 a treatise narrating the story of the Pandavas illustrates in each of its sargas certain points and peculiarities of the grammar. 39 The book is not complete but breaks off in the middle. Another important work of Divakara is 'Bharatamrtam', the manuscript copies of which are available both in the collections of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 40 and the Government Oriental Manuscripts Library 11 at Madras. The manuscripts in the Madras Oriental Library do not mention the name of the author but say that he was the son of Muktamba and Vaidyesvara. It is also stated that one Govinda, son of a paternal uncle, helped the author in the revision of the work. The author's other works as mentioned in the colophon are 37. H. P. Sastri, Des. Cat. of Sans. Mss. in the collections of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. VII (Kavya Mss.) No. 5181. But Dhurta Carita is a composition of his brother Madhusudana. See, M. Krishnamachariar Classical Sanskrit Literature, p. 237. 38. Tr. Cat. of Sans. Mss. of the Govt. Oriental Mss. Library, Madras, 1919-1920 to 1921-22, R. No. 3826, p. 5664. 39. At the end of each chapter there is a colophon which reads: Iti Laksanadarse-Pandavacarite maha-kavye Paniniya-kut = adi bhuv =adi-padadvaya-laksya-samgrahah Pandava-vivaso-nama prathamas = sargah" Iti Laksanadarse maha-kavye Mahopadhyaya Sri Divakara viracite Uttara-palayanam-nama trayodasas = sargah". The subject matter has been divided by the author into 14 chapters; and he narrates in each chapter the story of the Pandavas, discussing at the same time certain grammatical pecularities. 1. Pandava vivasah (kut=adi bhuv = adi pada-dvaya laksya-samgrahah). 2. Puri-vartanam (Paniniya-samasa-prakaranam). 3. Krsna-Pandava samagamah (Paniniy=aluk-samasa prakaranam). 4. Draupadi-vakyam (An=abhihita-pada-prakaranam). 5. Balabhadra-vakyam (Paniniya pratyaya-pada-samgrahah). 6. Hari-vyaparah (Karma-pada-laksya samgrahah). 7. Krsna-Kicak = abhilasah (karma-pada-laksya-samgrahah). 8. Draupady=avamanah (Sambandha-pada-dvaya-laksya samgrahah). 9. Draupady upalambhah (Paniniya-rakta-pada-laksya samgrahah). 10. Kicaka-vadhah (Thag-adhikara laksya samgrahah). 11. Bhimasena-vijayah (Yusmat-pada-thanca prakaranam). 12. Pandava-sarathyam (krita-pada-prakaranam). 13. Uttara-kumara palayanam (vibhakti-pada-prakaranam). 14. Brhannala yuddham (Samas =anta-sannanta-prakaranam). 40. No. 4121, of Vol. VII, Kavya manuscripts of the Cat. of Manuscripts in the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 41, No. 3002. Tr. Cat. of Sans. Mss. 1919-20 to 1921-22, pp. 4368-69,

EDUCATION AND LITERATURE "Parijataharana Nataka" and "Rasamanjari". 155 Krsnadevaraya also claims the authorship of a work called "Rasamanjari". 'Bharatamrtam' is a poem narrating the story of Mahabharata and at the end of each sarga the author has a colophon in which he gives some details about his family. 41 a Prataparudra honoured Divakara by conferring on him the title of Kavicandraraya and he lived at the court of the Gajapati until Krsnadevaraya conquered Prataparudra. Divakara like his friend Laksmidhara migrated to the court of Krsnadevaraya and continued his literary career at Vijayanagara.42 5. Jivadeva. Another Sanskrit poet patronized by Prataparudra was Jivadeva. In his Bhaktivaibhava Nataka he says that he was the son of Srimat-kaviraja-rajaguru Trilocanacarya. His full name appears to be Sriman-mahamahopadhyaya-kavidindimavahinipati-rajaguru Sri Jivadevacarya. His work Bhaktivaibhava Nataka is written in Oriya characters and contains about 2800 slokas. In the colophon he gives details about his family and mentions that he was patronized by Raja Prataparudra. The founder of this family as we have seen was one Gopaladeva, who served as the 'purohit or 'rajaguru' of Nissanka Bhanudeva, last of the Eastern Ganga kings and Kapilendradeva, the founder of the Gajapati dynasty and grandfather of raja Prataparudra, the patron of Jivadeva. Trilocanakaviraja, father of 41 a. Bharat =amrte maha-kavye Partha-dhanur = vidya-nama Yam prasuta pativrata gunavati mukta vimukt = atmanah Sri Vaidy = esvarato vibhasita Bharadvaj = arvayad = atmajam yas-cakre-Rasamanjar-iti rasik-ahladaya padyavalim sargastat krta kavya esa gunavan = atr = aika-vimso gatah. = Yam prasuta.... .............d=.atmajam | Govindah kavi-sekharah katipaye hast = avalambah pituh bhratri yo = 'jani yasya tasya sukrtau dva-vimsa sargo-gatah. Yam prasuta.. d = atmajam yas capdt Kavicandra-raya-padavim Sri Rudra-bhumi-bhujah sargas-tad-vinibaddha kavya-tilake = 'sau panca-vimsogatah. Yam prasuta... ......d=atmajam ramyam c=akrta Parijata-haranam san = natakam yas = trayas = twimsas = tat = krta kavya eva viratim sargo navadyo gatah, Yat putra kavi-dindimo='pi kavita-vade jitas = tat = krtau 42. M. Krishnamachariar: Classical Sanskrit Literature, para, 237,

156 GAJAPATIS OF ORISSA Jivadeva served Purusottama as his 'rajaguru'. 43 The Bhaktivaibhava consists of nine acts; and refers to his parentage and enumerates his titles.44 Jivadeva was a great bhakta and a scholar in Vedanta and well versed in the Six Darsanas.15 He may have come under the hypnotic influence of Lord Caitanya who stayed at Puri during the period. Bhakti Bhagavata Mahakavya was also the work of Jivadeva, dedicated to Prataparudra. This work in the prasasti portion gives some interesting information about the Gajapati dynasty, the period of their rule and their conquest and charities. 6. Ramananda Raya : 46 Ramananda Raya belonged to the prominent Karana family of Orissa and was the eldest of five sons of Bhavananda Patnayak of Cuttack. "He is said to have possessed a very keen interest and high sense of duty."47 Prataparudra took him into his service and appointed him as a governor over Rajahmundry and dependent territory on the river Godavari. He came into the orbit of Caitanya's influence, while the 'Master was on his way to the South' and on that occasion when they both met, there was a long discussion on philosophy and finally Caitanya convinced him of the superiority of the bhakti-marga. Thence forward he became a Vaisnava and stayed with Caitanya resigning his responsible job. He made popular his philosophy known as 'Raganuga's' cult where he emphasised the 'prema' aspect of 43. Haraprasad Sastri: Report on the Search for Sanskrit Manuscripts., 1901-1902 to 1905-1906, p. 14-16. 44. No. 5347. Des. Cat. of Sans. Mss. in the collection of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. VII, (Kavya Mss.). Iti Srimat = kavi-dimdima rajaguru Jivadev = acarya viracite Bhaktivaibhava-natake vidya-viloko-nama. Iti Srimat=kaviraja rajaguru Triloocanacarya taraya Sri Bhagavad = Vasudeva-bhakti-prasthana-pranaya param = acarya Sriman = Mahamahopadhyaya Sri kavi-dindima-vahinipati rajaguru Sri Jivadevacarya-viracite Bhakti-vaibhava-natake Pasanda-mandalo-nama caturth = ankah. **** Astau hataka-cdmarani kanakac = chatram damad -dindimam yo labdhva prathita-pratapa-vibhavah sri Rudradev = esvarat Sri Jivah kavi-dindimo nrpa-guruh Sad=Darsani pandito bhakti-prasthita-desiko........diksa-guruh. 45. Yoga, Sankhya, Purvamimamsa (Karma-kanda), Uttaramimamsa (Vedanta), Nydya, and Vaisesika. 46. Report on the Search for Sanskrit Manuscripts-1901-1902; 1905- 1906, pp. 14-16 ft. 47. Tarinicharan Rath: 'Ramananda', J.B.O.R.S., XVIII.

EDUCATION AND LITERATURE 157 bhakti.48 He also deviated from the old form of bhajana and followed. a particular mode of dancing while doing bhajana. He was a great scholar and writer. His drama known as 'Jagannathavallabha Natakam' consists of five acts of amorous pastimes of Krsna with Radha. This drama was enacted before the Gajapati Prataparudra. In the colophon to his drama Ramananda Raya refers to his father Bhavananda and his sovereign Prataparudra Gajapati.49 Ramananda was instrumental, according to thee Caitanya Caritamrta, in the conversion of Prataparudra to Caitanyism. II. ORIYA LITERATURE: The Eastern Ganga monarchs who preceded the Suryavamsi Gajapati dynasty on the throne of Orissa, were not patrons of Oriya literature. There is not even a single literary composition in Oriya whose date can be assigned to the period of their rule. This was probably due to their partiality towards Sanskrit. But from the finished form of the poem Kesavakoili which in the opinion of Mr. Majumdar was composed sometime before A.D. 1450, it must be presumed that the foundations "for the literary culture of the vernacular" was laid in the time of the later Gangas who made Orissa their home. The rise of the truly Oriya dynasty of the Suryavamsi Gajapatis and the influence of Vaisnavism kindled the literary genius of the people and stimulated the growth of the vernacular literature. In spite of the fact that the Gajapati monarchs were enthusiastic patrons of Oriya literature, curiously enough, no contemporary Oriya poet has sung the achievements of these monarchs. On the other hand all the works of the period are mainly the manifestations of the religious spirit of the age. The koili lyric is the earliest composition in Oriya literature. 'It is a monologue and the person whose words the poet versifies dis- 48. Caitanya Caritamrta. 49. 3549. Dis. Cat. Sans. Mss. in the collection of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. VII. In the colophon to this drama Ramananda Raya refers to his father Bhavananda and his sovereign Prataparudra Gajapati. Laghutara lalita kamdharam hasita-vadana-sundaram Gajapati Prataparudra hrday = anugitam = anudinam - sarasam racayiti Ramananda Rayah | Sri Bhavananda Rayasya tanujena Sri Ramananda Rayena.

158 GAJAPATIS OF ORISSA closes his thoughts to a cuckoo by addressing it, 'O koili; this forms the burden of the poem.' "50 The Kesava-koili or the Yasoda-koili of Markandeyadas is the earliest of this series. W. W. Hunter suggests that this koili is at least five hundred years old. But Manmohan Chakravarti, for different reasons, thinks that it is three hundred years old. Since Jagannathadas has referred to this koili in his own work (Artha-koili), it must be earlier to that Jagannathadas. The latter lived at the court of Prataparudra, and so Markandeyadas must have been a contemporary of either Kapilendra or Purusottamadeva. To the reign of Purusottamadeva may be assigned Kanta-koili of Balaramdas. The earliest period of the Oriya literature can be easily characterised as the Age of Translations. Saraladas, Balaramdas and Jagannathadas, the authors respectively of the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata and the Ramayana were the early poets. These were not literal translations of the Sanskrit works into Oriya but adaptations of them. They developed their own metres in writing verses. Cautisa form of poems are the special contributions of Orissa. "A cautisa should contain thirty-four lines at least and the letters ka to ksa should be the initial letter of the lines in regular succession" 51 This method was the outcome of the influence of mystic religious value attached to each and every letter in Tantric system which had a strong hold on Orissa. Poems like the 'Rasakallola' of Dinakrsnadas were written in this form. As has been mentioned already the religious revival brought about by Caitanya and his predecessors turned the current of popular thought towards the worship of Krsna. The Rasakallola is an illustration of the outcome of poetic thought in that direction. The author of this work is Dinakrsnadas, a Vaisnava living at the temple of Jagannatha at Puri. His date is approximately ascertained by the fact that some of his verses in praise of the reigning sovereign, Puru- sottamadeva, are still extant. 52 The work itself consists of 32 cantoes varying in length from 50 to 150 lines, and written in colloquial Oriya. The special feature of this poem is 'the readiness with which the poet's native language lends itself to the metres which he employs. 53 "This work is very popular in Orissa, 50. Intro. T.S.O.L., p. 20. 51. Ibid. 52. Beams, Indian Antiquary, Vol. I, p. 215 ff. 53. Ibid, p. 292.

EDUCATION AND LITERATURE 159 its songs are sung by common folk in every part of the country and many of its lines have passed into proverbs. This popularity is mainly due to the fact that it is free from the long Sanskrit samasas. Early Poets: 1. Saraladas: The period is marked by the composition of religious epics. Saraladas' Mahabharata comes first in point of time. He was not so devout a worshipper of Visnu as he was of Candi. This he expresses in one of the colophons to the Mahabharata.54 He was a sudra by birth and was an inhabitant of Jhankurpur. In some of the verses in the introductory chapters of the Mahabharata, he refers to his ruler Kapilendra 55 and as such he must have flourished during the reign of that monarch. This author acquired celebrity in Bengal and Dr. Dinesh Chandra Sen informs us that his Mahabharata was translated into Bengali and that it is very popular in Bengal. 2. Balaramdas is the celebrated author of Oriya Ramayana. From the colophons 56 to his work it is found that he was the son of Somanatha Mahapatra, a minister of the king. And Mr. Majumdar thinks that this Somanatha was a descendant of Gopinatha, a minister of Kapilendradeva. Another colophon 57 gives us the full title of the work as Jaganmohana-Ramayana. It subsequently became very popular and came to be received before the crowded public. Yet members of the brahmana caste who were learned scholars in Sanskrit looked down upon the compositions of these sudra writers. Balaramdas in one of the colophons 58 of his Ramayana urges the brahmanas to read his work. In his old age Balaramdas was converted by Caitanya. He appears to have continued his literary career under Prataparudra.59 54. "Sarala Candi-namo attaye sahi Devi Taharo daso mo ye Sarala das kavi" 55. "Kalikala-dhvamsanaku Bhoga goti puja Pranamite khanda ye Kapilesvaro Raja" 56.. "Mahipatra mantri Somanatha mahapatra Balaramdasa ye tahara Mahiputra". 57. The colophon of the Sundara kanda. 58. Ramayana, Lanka Kanda. 59. Two Gupta Gitas mention that Balaramdas wrote a Gupta Gita, but could not finish it. It was only finished by another who says that he was an incarnation of Balaramdas in the time of Mukundadeva and finished the unfinished Gupta Gita in 35 chapters (For further details see. Mr. Majum-` dar, Typ. Sel. from Oriya Literature, page 14). In another Gupta Gita it is stated that there was a dispute between Balaramdas and some orthodox brahmanas and the case was referred to Prataparudra.

- 160 GAJAPATIS OF ORISSA Since he claims that he had finished his composition of the Ramayana before he was thirty-two we have to presume that he started his literary career during the reign of Purusottamadeva. Besides the Ramayana, he is also credited with the authorship of the (1) Arjunagita, (2) Gajanistaranagita (3) Bedaparikrama and (4) Mrguni-stuti. 3. Jagannathadas: Another important literary luminary in the court of Prataparudra was Jagannathadas, son of Bhagavandas and Padma. He was a brahmana by birth and according to Jagannatha Caritamrta he was a deciple of Balaramdas. His father Bhagavandas was a reader of the Puranas (Puran-pand) in the temple of Jagannatha and he took every care to get his son educated in Sanskrit. The biographer of the poet Divakara informs that he got inspired while hearing the Bhagavata read out at Puri and began his task of writing Bhagavata in Oriya. His work became very popular in Orissa. He was converted to Vaisnavism by Caitanya shortly after his arrival in Orissa in A.D. 1510. Ever since then Jagannathadas strove to popularise his convictions. His works exhibit masterly grasp and exposition of poets. He was not merely a poet but a sound scholar as well. His Bhagavata was recited every day by a man in every village from a place called 'Bhagavata tungis' and this man was maintained by the public of the village. This method of reciting the Bhagavadgita to the people from a public place in every village helped a great deal for the growth and spread of Vaisnavism and the removal of the rigidity of caste system. Jagannathadas is also credited with the composition of several works, 60 Gupta Bhagavata, Darubrahmagita, Gaja-stuti, Arthakoili, Mrguni-stuti, Dhruva-stuti, Tulabhina, Itihasa Purana, Pasanda-dalana, Manasi-kasa, and Rasakreeda, most of which are published. 4. Acyutanandadas: Acyutanandadas, the author of the Garuda Gita and Sunya Samhita is said to have started his literary career under Prataparudra and lived to see the reign of Mukundadeva. Nothing more is known about this poet except that he served for sometime under Padmanabha Narendra of Ranpur State. III. TELUGU LITERATURE UNDER THE GAJAPATIS: Although ruling over a number of Telugu districts, the Gajapati 60. History of the Oriya Literature, p. 49.

EDUCATION AND LITERATURE · " 161 rulers did not extend their patronage to Telugu poets or Telugu literature. Telugu literature had its glorious days under the Reddis at Rajahmundry and once again it was restored to its old position and prestige by Krsnaraya of Vijayanagara. Vema and Virabhadra Reddis of Rajahmundry were great patrons of Telugu literature. The greatest of the Telugu poets of the day 'Srinatha' was the court poet of Virabhadra. His catus 61 give us an idea of his achievements in the courts of the several kings which he visited during the course of his long life. Srinatha was at first in the court of Peda Komati Vema Reddi of Kondavidu. He paid a visit to the court of Ravu Singa of Racakonda on behalf of his sovereign; he also visited Vijayanagara and was honoured by Devaraya. There are many works to the credit of Srinatha, Maruttaratcaritra, Salivahanasaptasati, Bhimakhandam, Srngara Naisadham, Kasi Khandam, etc. But with the death Vema and Virabhadra, or more probably with the Gajapati conquest of the Telugu coast sometime before A.D. 1453 the glory of Srinatha declined and Telugu Literature was neglected by the new conquerors. 61. See G. Ramamurthy Pantulu: Kavijivitamulu, p. 254. "Dinara-tamkala-dirtham adimciti Daksin =adhisu-Mutyala-sala Paluku-todait = Amdhra-bhasa-mahakavya Naisadha-grantha-samdarbhamunanu Pagula-gottimcit = udbhata-vivada-praudhi Gauda Dimdima-bhattu kamcu-dhakka Camdrasekhara-Kriyasakti-Rayala-kada badukolpiti Sarvabhauma-biruda metula meppimcedo nannun-imka-mida Ravu Singa-mahipalu-dhi-visalu nimdu koluvuna nelakoniy = umdi nivu sarasa-sadguna-nikuramba Saradamba. 61 a. Vinipimeinadavu Vema-bhupalunak = akhila-punana-vidy= agamamulu Kalpimcinadavu gadha-pakamb =aina Harsa-Naisadha-kavyam = Amdhra bhasa bhasimcinadavu bahudesa-bhudhulato G. 21 vidya-pariksana-velalamdu Vedajallinadavu visada-kirti-sphurtikarpuramula dis = anganamulamdu Pakanatimti-vadavu bamdhavudavu Kamalandbhuni-manumadav-amalamativi naku = grpa-seyum=oka-prabamdhambu nivu kalita-guna-ganya Srinatha kavi-varenya", 1

162 GAJAPATIS OF ORISSA According to Sri K. Veeresalingam Pantulu, Srinatha survived Vema and Virabhadra of Rajahmundry and he took for lease a village named Boddupalli on the river Krsna. The crops failed, and whatever remained was swept away by floods in the river. He was put to a lot of suffering owing to his inability to pay the rent. He gives expression to his wounded feelings in a poignant verse in which he states that he who was honoured with the title of kaviraja was made to stand in the hot sun in the middle of the street with a pogada-danda (an instrument of torture) around his neck; the block of the granite stone lying in front of the palace was lifted on to the shoulders of the emperor of poets (kavi-sarvabhauma); the feet of the author of the Andhra-Naisadha were adorned with a pair of fetters; and a bamboo staff was fastened to the fore-arms of the favourite poet of Virabhadra.61 b Srinatha was indeed poor and unhappy in his last days. In the carama-padya (the last verse) which he is said to have composed on his death bed he mentions with regret his departed patrons Virabhadra Reddi, Panta Mailara, Tenunguraya Rahutta, Vissana Mantri and Bhaskara and announces his resolve to go to heaven so as to cause fear in the minds of the poets of that world, as the life on earth in the Kali-yuga has become extremely hard.62 61 b. "Kavinaju kamthambu -gaugilimcenu-gada pura-vidhin edur-emda pogada-damda = Sarvabhaumuni bhuja-stambham-ekkenu-gada nagari-vakitan = umdu nalla-gumdu Amdhra-Naisadha-karta = yamghri-yugmambuna dagiliyumdenu-gada nigala-yugamu Virabhadra Reddi vidvamsu-mumjeta viyyamamdenu-gada veduru godiya Krsnavenamma konipoyen = imta-phalamu bilabil=aksulu dinipoye dilalu pesalu Boddupallenu godd-eli mosapotin = etula-jellimtu = damkambul - edu-nurlu. 62. Kavijivitamulu, p. 286-87. "Kasika-Visvesu-galise-Vira Reddi ratn = ambarambul = e-rayad = iccu Kailasa-giri-jere Mailara-vibhud = egidina-veccam-e-raju tirpagaladu Rambha-gude-Tenunguraya Rahuttumdu kasturik-e-raju = brastutimtu Svargasthud-ayye Vissana-mantri mari hema-patr = annam = evvari pamkti galugu Bhaskarudu munne devuni-palik = arige Gali-yugambunan-ikan = umdagastam = anucu Divija-kavivaru-gumdiyal diggur = anaganarugucunnadu Srinathud = Amara-puriki",

EDUCATION AND LITERATURE 163 Whatever may be the circumstances under which srinatha died, it is certain that he lived at least to see the beginnings of the Gajapati authority in the Telugu districts. No wonder the Gaja+ pati officials stationed at Kondavidu, had put him to trouble in exacting the revenue from him, without paying any respect to his past greatness. The Gajapatis were just then occupying the lands and the stability of the administration in a newly conquered country rests on the revenues raised there. The methods adopted by those men were really harsh and most unbecoming of a civilised state and much less to be used against a man of Srinatha's position. Although the Gajapatis did not evince any interest in Telugu language and literature, some of their vassals extended their patronage to Telugu poets and encouraged them to write books. Pusapati Basavabhupala who ruled over the Udayagiri-rajya as their vassal, was a munificent patron of Telugu men of letters. Of the poets that flourished at his court, the following deserve special notice. 1. Dubagunta Narayanakavi: He was an inhabitant of the village Dubagunta in the Udayagiri taluk of the Nellore district. He was the son of Nagamma and Brahmaya Mantri. His literary preceptor was one Naganarya, son of Kondaya Mantri.63 He was an official under Basavabhupala of Udayagiri and translated the Sanskrit Pancatantra into Telugu and dedicated it to his patron Basava.64 2. Daggupalli Duggana: He was a son of Tippana and Errama of Sandilya-gotra, a Saivite by religion and a brother-in-law of the poet Srinatha. He dedicated his work 'Nasiketopakhyanam' to 'Candaluri Gangaya Mantri', a minister of Pusapati Basavabhupala.65 a 63. Pancatantram. 64. T. Achyuta Rao: A History of Andhra Literature (in the Vijayanagara Empire) Vol. I p. 107 f. 65. "Kavi-sarvabhaumudai Karnata-vibhuceta kanaka-ratn = abhisekamulu gonina Srinatha-sukavi kurimi-ceyu maradivi Duggaya-kavinaja Daggupalli". 65 a. Nasiketopakhyanam: "Vasudha-negadina Madhavavarma-vamsavardhanumd=agu Tamma-bhuvaruni-Basava parthivunak aptudai krpa-patrudagucu ghanata merasen = Anamtaya-Ganga-vibhudu".

164 GAJAPATIS OF ORISSA 3. Nandi Mallayya & 4. Ghanta Singayya: These twin poets were at first patronized by Basavabhupala of Udayagiri whom they mention in the introduction to their Prabhoda-candrodayam.66 Their Prabhodha-candrodayam was dedicated to Candaluri Gangayamatya, the minister of Basava. This poem furnishes some interesting historical information about the relationship of the Gajapati and the Narapati, between whose realms lay Basava's state. Sometime about A.D. 1475 Udayagiri-rajya was conquered by Saluva Nrsimha and these poets migrated to the court of the conqueror, where they continued their literary career. There they composed their important work Varaha Puranam which they dedicated to Narasa Nayaka, the general Saluva Nrsimha. 5. Pillalamari Pina Virabhadrakavi: He flourished in the court of Saluva Nrsimha to whom he dedicated his Jaiminibharatam. The author of the Jaiminibharatam had two sons (1) Viranna, (2) Mallesvara. This Mallesvara secured the favour of the Gajapatis of Cuttack and served under them as an officer. They conferred on him as a token of their appreciation of his services the village 'Penumalla' as a present. Henceforward his family was known as 'Penumalla' and not 'Pillalamarri'.67 66. Prabhodha-candrodayam: "Madhavarma-bhumamdal = esvara-vamsajaladhikin = e-raju camdamama E-raj = Udaya-sailam - elami vibhedimce = gapat =ahita-madamdhakaram = adaga Gajapati surathani gadi-durgamulak = ellan == e-raju-vajrampu-boru-talupu" 67. T. Acyuta Rao; A History of Andhra Literature (in the Vijayanagara Empire) Vol. I, p. 164,