Part 12 - Temple Construction (of the Kaveri Delta and the Cholas)

[Full title: Temple Construction and the Changing Concept of Kingship (of the Kaveri Delta and the Cholas)]

The third phase of early medieval period is well known with the coming out of the regional imperial powers who were intensively involved in temple constructions. Several numbers of enormous royal temples erected from about tenth to thirteenth century A.D. some notable examples are Laksmana temple (954 A.D.) and Kandari Mahadev temple (early 11^th century A.D.) at Khajuraho, the Udayesvara temple at Udaipur (1059-80 A.D.), the Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneswar (mid-eleventh century A.D.), the Jagannatha temple at Puri (1135 A.D.), and Sun temple Konarak (1238-58 A.D.). Likewise, the Rajarajesvara temple at Tanjavur (1003-10 A.D.) and Rajendresvara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram (second quarter, 11^th century A.D.) constructed by Chola monarch Rajaraja I and Rajendra I respectively. These huge constructions not only display the power and strength of the state to his subjects and rivals but also it played an important role in the royal dana system and of kingly validation over his subordinates. Through this erections king were doubtlessly established their religious authority and also achieved vertical supremacy over his administration. The temple building or construction of religious institutions and gave donations for their expenses were not completely a new phenomenon, but it was gathered momentum in the imperial phase.

During the time of Vijayalaya we came to know from Tiruvalangadu plates of Rajendra Chola, that he erected a temple of goddesses Nisumbasudini, at Tanjavur to commemorate his victory over the Muttaraiyars.^[1] The goddesses Nisumbasudini become the Chola tutelary deity from this time onwards. Another temple, Vijayialaya Colisvaram, at Narttamalai, often known as early Chola temple, originally belonged to the Muttaraiyars, whom he defeated. Scholars are generally of that view that from the time of Sundara Chola the stone construction were being firmly started in Kaveri delta region. His Anbil copper plates^[2] states that from Aditya I, large stone temples of Siva, as depicting his victories, were started erecting on two sides of Kaveri river. Royal temples of this period are to be divided into two groups. As we discussed in our earlier section, the two groups are the Sepulchral (built on the place king died) or on places of religious importance. Parantaka I’s Kodandaramesvara temple at Tondaimanadu, was built on where his father Aditya died. This structure is also enshrined a linga named after the king Kodandarama or Aditya I. Such funerary construction, also known in tamil as Pallippadai become popular in late ninth century A.D. Kaimal relates this practice to the traditional Tamil warrior culture of the Sangam age and belongs to the Pasupata Sect, as guru in Pasupata Sect was buried not burned after death.^[3] She also refers of constructions of temple by the queens for their deceased sons.^[4] The spread of the Pasupata Sect at that time in Kaveri valley is also attested by Nilakantha Sastri.^[5] It could be speculated that the fusion of the Pallippadai and the Pasupata Sect or the Saivitive tradition amalgamated with the Tamil warrior culture of hero-stone tradition. The Pallippadai, thus become the base stone of the later huge temples as to commemorate the dead heroes.^[6]

This form of the Pallippadai actually established the Hero-kingship in the early phase of imperial Chola rule. From the Rajaraja I onwards in place of Nisumbasudini the Chola family become followers of Siva as family god. With the expansion of the Chola territory the universal Siva become more useful beyond their core area for the validation of their rule in different sub regions. From the time of Sembiyan Mahadevi, who is known for temple building and for generous donations, the Cholas established firm relationship with the Nataraja temple at Chidambaram. The Golden roof or Cit-sabha, was constructed by Parantaka I.

From the Rajaraja I onwards, the cult of royal Linga was initiated by the rulers in between 1000 to 1070 A.D. His Rajarajesvara temple later known as Brhadisvara temple was the starting point of this royal cult policy. His large scale military success gathered huge amount of treasure which certainly have facilitate them for large scale constructions. His son Rajendra I, in the same manner constructed Rajendresvara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram, which also known as Brhadisvara temple in later times. It not only showing the power of the wealth of the Chola state but also its enormous size resembles the shape of the huge empire. The most interesting factor associated with these constructions was the incorporation of the name of the king as the name of an enshrined Linga. H. Kulke shows that this practice was similarly replicated in Khamer kingdom of Cambodia as Devaraja cult.^[7] This feature also has Indian versions, Avantisvamin temple built by Utpala king Avantisvamin of Kashmir in 9^th century A.D., Rajasimhesvara temple constructed by Pallava king Rajasimha in Kanci in the 8^th century A.D., Uttamadanisvara temple erected by Muttaraiyar chieftain Uttamadani and Udayesvara temple built by Udayaditya Paramara in 11^th century Malwa.

This trend initiated a change in Chola kingship. The Linga enshrined in Pallippadai type of construction in commemoration of a deceased king and the Linga enshrined in huge royal temples named after the living kings clearly establish the change in Chola kingship. In Rajarajesvara temple, several sources claim that king Rajaraja I himself attending the Rajarajesvara temple ceremonies for several times. Several temple sculptures bearing the image of Siva in his Tripurantaka (destroyer of the three citadels of demons) form become the symbol of Rajaraja I’s military strength and imperial authority. Rajaraja I donated enormous amount of wealth to this temple and also several villages for its expenses even situated in the enemy territory. Yasushi Ogura opines that this royal temple policy actually intended to centralise the royal dana strategy.^[8] It generated the image of a king of pious devotee of Siva, the chief priest of the temple and the great donor, he assured his legitimacy.

In the late phase or imperial Chola rule (1070-1279 A.D.) the shift in temple policy again occurred. The earlier policy of building royal Linga temple was still in practice. But Kulottunga I did not have any temple by his name. He and his successor Vikrama Chola and their minister Navalokavira, devoted their entire effort on enlarging the Nataraja temple at Chidambaram. This was continued up to the reign of Kulottunga III. The Vikramacolisvara temple built by Vikrama Chola at Vikramacholanallur^[9] , the Rajarajesvara temple or Airvatesvara temple of Darasuram, built by Rajaraja II, and Tribhuvanavilesvara temple at Tribhuvanam (Tribhuvanavilapuram) built by Kulottunga III are an example of this policy. Tribhuvanavilesvara temple was constructed after the title of Kulottunga III, who is also known as ‘the hero who conquered the three worlds.’ But this temple was constructed by the king’s purohita Isvara Siva, author of Siddhantaratanakara.^[10] It shows that the Saivasiddhaanta sect now took the place of Pasupata Sect.^[11] Saivasiddhaanta sect stressed more on pararthapuja or worship for the benefit of others in place of atmarthapuja, or worship for oneself preached by Saivasiddhaanta sect.^[12] Yasushi Ogura thinks that due to this new development of increasing influences of the rising sects and the common people prevented the kings from giving their imperial temples a personal name or flavour.^[13] The source of legitimacy now started shifting from king’s own personality to the universal Saivism. With this the patronage to the Nataraja temple at Chidambaram, turn the wheel and Nataraja become the tutelary deity for the Chola Royal family. The royal donations were also increased to the Ranganatha temple at Srirangam. The decreasing importance of the royal temple proves the increasing patronage to a pan-Indian sanskritised god. It also indicates the increasing influences of the Brahmins at the court over the kings and the divine image of the kings become less important.The practice of Amman shrines where goddesses were enshrined becomes more popular in late phase. As consorts of Siva, now these deities came to be associated with royal Linga temples.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

SII, 1920, No.3, 205

[2]:

Epigraphica Indica, 1919-20, Vol.15, No.5, 68, trs. by T.A. Gopinatha Rao

[3]:

Padma Kaimal, “Early Cola Kings and 'Early Cola' Temples: Art and the Evolution of Kingship”, Artibus Asiae, 66.1, 1996, p.60

[4]:

Ibid.

[5]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri; The Colas, pp. 647-52

[6]:

K.G. Krisnan, ‘Hero Stone Inscriptions of the Pallava Times,’ in R. Nagaswamy; (ed.) Seminar on Hero-Stones, Madras, quoted in S. Setter;‘Memorial stones in South India,’ S. Setter & G.D. Sontheimer (eds.) Memorial Stones: A Study of their Origin, Significance, and Variety, Darwad and Heidelberg, 1982, p.187.

[7]:

H. Kulke, The Devaraja Cult, New York, 1978

[8]:

Yasushi Ogura, ‘The Changing Concept of Kingship in Cola Period,’ in N. Karashima; (ed.) Kingship in Indian History, op.cit. p.129

[9]:

B. Venkataraman, Rajarajesvaram -The Pinnacle of Chola Art, Madras, 1985, p.74; S.R. Balasubramoniyam, Later Chola Temples, Kulottunga I to Rajendra III, Faridabad, 1979, p. 167-71

[10]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, op.cit. p.399

[11]:

B.G.L. Swamy, ‘The Golaki School of Saivism in the Tamil Country,’ Journal of Indian History, 53, 1975, pp.167-209

[12]:

Jun Takashima, ‘Early History of the Saiva Matha: 8^th To 13^th Century’, (in Japanese) 1989, p.48, cited in Yasushi Ogura, ‘The Changing Concept of Kingship in Cola Period’, op.cit. p.141

[13]:

Yasushi Ogura, op.cit, p. 133