Kingship in early Medieval India

by Sudip Narayan Maitra | 2015 | 67,940 words

This thesis is called: Kingship in early Medieval India: A comparative study of the Cholas and the Eastern Gangas. It represents a detailed empirical study of “kingship and polity” of two broad deltaic alluvial stretch of land on the “eastern coast”, namely ‘Mahanadi’ and ‘Kaveri’ delta. These were among the main centers of political and cultural a...

Part 4 - Mahanadi Delta region: Sub Period III: 900-1300 A.D

[Full title: Mahanadi Delta region: Sub Period III: 900-1300 A.D (The Regional Phase)]

Under the above said time frame, in north and central Orissa, several numbers of epigraphic records originated in the names suffixed with ‘Bhanja’. The relationship between the various groups of Bhanja kings is not clear in every occasion.

The Early Bhanjas of Khinjali–Mandala, in their copper plate grants, mentioned as the rulers of Ubhaya-Khinjali or the two Khinjalis. Kings like Satrubhanja and Ranabhanja issued their grant from Dhrtipura are often referred as the early Bhanjas of Khinjali-Mandala. Bhanja rule, according the issuance of their copper plate grants, stretched in Balangir, Dhencanal, Phulabani, and Puri districts. Ranabhanja bears the title Ranaka, Samadhigata-Panca-Mahasabda, Mahasamanta-Vandita and Ubhaya-Khinjaly-Adhipati. Both Satrubhanja and Ranabhanja have described as belonging to the egg -born lineage (Andaja-Vamsa-Prabhava). The Patna plates of Ranabhanja record the matrimonial relation between the early Bhanjas of Khinjali and the Kadambas of Karnataka.

The Early Bhanjas were worshippers of both Visnu and Siva. The couchant bull motif is frequently found in their inscriptions. In Satrubhanja’s Kumurukela plates we find invocation to Visnu and Laksmi.[1] The subsequent grants of the Bhanjas of Khinjali–Mandala invoke Siva as Bhairava. Ranabhanja in his Singhara plates made gifts in the name of Narayana (Sri-Narayana-Bhattarakam=Uddisya).[2] Parama-Mahesvara and Parama-Vaisnava both the titles were found in Bhanja inscriptions. With that Ranabhanja as ranaka, has describes of obtaining the favour of Stambhesvari (Stambhesvari-Labdha-Vara-Prasada).[3] Both Satrubhanja and Ranabhanja were famous to their people for their benevolence and Satrubhanja is compared with Brhaspati in sonpur plate while Ranabhanja compared with Svayambhu in his plates.[4]

The Bhanjas of Khinjali–Mandala (the later Bhanjas) were being uprooted by the Somavamsis during the reign of Nettabhanja Kalyanakalasa. The derivation of their later grants proves that they moved into the Puri Gangam area. From Vanjulvaka Bhanja kings started issuing grants with titles like Ranaka and Maharaja.

From Pedagadi village in Mayurbhanj district we find records with the name of the kings ended with Bhanja. The Adi-bhanja rulers of Khijjinga-kotta were contemporaneous with the Bhanjas of KhinjaliMandala who established their rule around the Mayurbhanj-Kendujhar area.[5] Khijjinga-kotta is identified with Khiching in Mayurbhanj district. Most of the Adi-Sulki kings do not claim any royal titles. R.D. Banerjee suggested that they were subordinate rulers of that time.[6] Most of the Adi-Sulki inscriptions vigorously speak of Ganadanda Virabhadra (reared by the sage Vasista, Vasista-Muni-Palita) as their progenitor of the Adi-Sulki lineage. Kottabhanja emerged as the first historical king of the Adi-bhanja family who borne in the Virabhadra’s lineage. In Kesari plates of Satrubhanja claims that their progenitor Virabhadra is said to have protected by Ramadeva and made lord of 88000 villages.[7]

In around 9th and 10th century the Sulki dynasty established their rule over the modern Dhenkanal district. Kodaloka, identified with modern Koalu on the banks of Brahmani River in the Dhenkanal district. The Dhenkanal plate of Ranastambha and Hindol plate of Kulastambha found with epithet Samadhi-Gata-Panca-Mahasabda and Maharaja. In Dhenkanal plates of Jayastambha we find the title of Maharajadhiraja. Several Sulki inscriptions are of claim that they are the lord of all Gondramas and Sankhajoti which is identified with places nearer to Sankha River in Sundargarh region.[8] Most of the Sulki grants began with an invocation to the lord Siva as lord of the mountain- Girisa and the donor king were known in the name of Parama-Mahesvara. King Ranastambha is said to have built the temples of Sadasiva.[9] The Stambha endings of the Sulki kings point their association with the godess Stambhesvari-Stambhesvari-Labdha-Vara-Prasada.[10]

We find the grants of the Tungas from Dhenkanal area of about 10th and 11th century AD. U. Singh suggested that the name Tunga, ‘may perhaps be related to the hilly terrain in which the kings bearing this name established their domain.’[11] We find Khargaprasada plate of Vinitatunga is dated in an unnamed era of 161. D.C. Sircar added in this regard that they were like the Sulkis and other semiindependent ruler under the Bhaumakaras uses the Bhauma-era. The Talcher plate of Gayadatunga, issued from Jayapura-Kotta, Bonai plate of Vinitatunga issued from Mahaparvata, were parts of Yamagarta-Mandala, over which they ruled. This Yamagarta-mandala is identified with Jamgadia in Angul and Mahavinayaka on the borders of Cuttack and Dhenkanal districts.

Tunga rulers have used the title of Maharaja, Mahasamant-Adhipati and Ranaka with subordinate titles of Samadhi-Gata-Panca-Mahasabda and Samadhigat-Asesa-Mahasabda. Vinitatunga claimed in his grants that he was the lord of the eighteen Gondramas. They traced their genealogical origin in the name of a Raja-Jagattunga of the Sandilya gotra, who belonged to a family situated at Rohitagiri, identified with Rohtashgarh in Shahabad district of Bihar. Though, N.K. Sahu identified the place with Ratagarh in Cuttack district of Orissa.[12] In The Talcher plate of Gayadatunga we find the invocation to Smardhadharin (the half moon god i.e. Siva)[13]

We found inscription from Dhenkanal districts which speaks of a king named Jayasimhadeva. Who bears the titles of Prata-Panca-Mahasabda (one who obtains the five sounds) and Sakala-Gondram-Adhipati (lord of all Gondrama). B. Misra suggested that Jayasimhadeva was probably a subordinate ruler residing at Jaipur near a stream called Mandakini.[14] In his plate we don’t find any seal or sectarian epithet.

The Nandodbhavas were the rulers of Dhenkanal district and adjoining Cuttack and Puri districts, who ruled sometimes during 10-11th century AD. The Daspalla plate of Devanandadeva and Talmul plate of Dhruvanandadeva were issued from Jayapura, identified with Jaipur village of Dhenkanal districts.[15] The epithets assumed by Devanandadeva are Mahasamant-Adhipati, Parama-Bhattaraka-Samadhi-Gata-Panca-Mahasabda, Ranaka, Maharaja, and Mahasamant-Adhipati-Vandita-Parama-Bhattaraka.[16] According to D.C. Sircar, Mahasamant-Adhipati was used in post Gupta period denoting feudatory of the foremost rank under an imperial ruler. D.C. Sircar about ‘Parama-Bhattaraka-Samadhi-Gata-Panca-Mahasabda’ suggested that ‘one who has obtained the five sounds from the Parama-Bhattaraka, that his overlord.’[17] In their genealogical part Nandodbhavas were described as descendants of Jayananda of Nandodbhava family who were the ruler of the whole Gondarama.

The seal used in Nandodbhava plates are couchant bulls with crescent, star, sun, conch lotus etc. No invocation is found in Nandodbhava grants. In the Baripada museum and Daspalla plates of Devanandaveva is found with epithet of Parama-Mahesvara, while Jayapura plates of Dhruvananda has Buddhist inclination with the title Parama-Saugata (great devotee of Buddha).[18]

Vira-Pracandadeva was another ruler who claimed to have ruled in the Dhenkanal area in around 10th or 11th century. He is of Kulika lineage or vamsa. This kulika lineage were also mentioned in Pala grants along with Gaudas, Malavas, Khasas, Hunas, Karnatas and Latas, who were military contingents recruited in the Pala army.[19] D.C. Sircar farther suggested them as related to the Kulyas mentioned in Puranas.[20] Vira-Pracandadeva’s copper plate grant was found from Chittalpur village in the Hindol sub-division of Dhenkanal district.[21] The king has taken the title of Parama-Mahesvara, but no seals or invocation is found in his inscription.

In around 10th century, the Somavamsis started to expand their domination over larger parts of northern and central Orissa. The Somavamsis (885-1110 A.D.) were originally started their rule in south Kosala (modern Raipur-Bilashpur-Sambalpur area). Most of their inscriptions found in around Balangir, Shambalpur, Baleswar, Cuttack and Puri districts. Somavamsi grants were issued of various centres of political importance. Suvarnapura (identified with Sonepur), Murasima (identified with Mursing in the old Patna state, now in Balangir district), Arama, Vinitapura (identified with Binka in the old Sonepur state), Yayatinagara (identified with Jaipur), Kisarakella (identified with Kesarkela village, Balangir) and Va(?)mandapatti. In land grants Kosaladesa (south Kosala), Odha or Odri desa (Odra), and Uttara and Daksina Tosali have been mentioned.[22] They vigorously used the titles with paramount importance.

Parama-Bhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja and Paramesvara, were frequently used. Somavamsis claimed in their records that they are of Soma kula. Last few Somavamsi kings were taken the title of Trikalinga-Adhipati. The Sonpur plates of Kumara Somesvara, describes him as having the Atreya gotra and a three-rsi pravara.[23]

The matrimonial alliances of the Somavamsis with the Bhaumakaras were known from the Baud plates of the Bhaumakara queen Prithivimahadevi, who describe her as the daughter of Svabhavatunga of Kosala. D.C. Sircar identifies Svabhavatunga with Somavamsi king Yayati Mahasivagupta I but K.C. Panigrahi with Janamejaya I.[24] According to K.C. Panigrahi Janamejaya I killed the Bhaumakara king and placed his daughter on the throne.[25]

Inscriptions show that Yayati I captured the united South Kosala and Utkala from the hands of Cedis (Kalachuris). His Balangir Museum plates records that he and his son captured the dahala country ruled by the Cedi king Durgaraja.[26] Yayati II claimed in his Jatesinga and Dungri plates that he becomes the ruler of Kalinga, Kongoda, Utkala ans Kosala with successful conquest of Karnata, Lata and the Dravida country. He also captured the glory of Kanci and Gauda and Radha. He has taken the epithet of Trikaling-adhipati by means of his own arm.[27] The Narasinghapur plate of Yayati II’s son Udyotakesari refers the name of Mahasandhivigrahin Rudradatta (minister of peace and war) who was in charge of both Utkala and Kosala.[28] Udyotakesari also claims that he defeated the kings of Dahala, Odra and Gauda.

After Udyotakesari, the Somavamsi rule started diminishing their power. The Ratnagiri plates of Karna, successor of Udyotakesari, were under threat of the Naga kings. Instead of titles like ‘Trikaling-Adhipati’ the modest title of Pascima-Lank-Adhipati, (identified with Western Island or the south Kosala by D.C. Sircar) and Maharajadhiraja replaced with Kumaradhiraja, found in Sonpur plates of Kumara Somesvara.[29] In southern Orissa, the Somavamsi rule was ultimately displaced by the Ganga king Anantavarman Codaganga and in upper Orissa it was the Kalachuris, the Chindaka-Nagas of Bastar and their Telegu-Coda feudatories.[30]

The seals we find in the Somavamsis copper plate grants are usually Gaja-Laksmi motif. Standing humped bull is found in Mahabhavagupta’s Maha-Kosala Historical Societies’ plates. This plates also bears with the invocation as - Om-Namah-Sivaya.[31] Sonepur plate of Kumara Somesvara was found made in the name of lord Mahesvara. The eulogy of the moon found mention in a good number of Somavamsis king’s grant. Lord Siva is also found in the name of Dhurjati.[32]

Somavamsis plates often found with praising notes to their political centres like Sura-pura, identified with Amaravati, surrounded with beautiful palaces (prasada), buildings (attalika), temples (devakula), gardens (udyana), kupa and tanks (tadaga).[33] King Mahasivagupta Yayati, in his Jatesinga and Dungri plates describes his capital as Suvarnapura, where he installed goddess Sri Pancambari Bhadrambika, who grants the prosperity for all.[34]

Most of the Somavamsis grants declare their affiliation as Parama-Mahesvara with the word Bhava or Siva. The Somavamsis subordinate ruler Punja king also mentioned with Parama-Mahesvara though he is also described as one who is favoured by the goddess Kalesvari.

In eulogy of king Mahasivagupta Yayati, the accession of the king Janmejaya to the throne of Kosala is compared with Yudhisthira’s accession (no-12). His intellect is said to have adorned and purified by the essence of Agamas. His inscription found in Jatesinga and Dungri, the king is described as one who is free from the tarnish of Kali age and as a builder of many temples–Devakula-Ayatana and Mandapas.[35] In Brahmesvara temple inscription of Udyotakesari, Bhimaratha is said to be the tree of desire Kalpa-Vrksa, of the kali age. His son Dharmaratha is described as the second Parasurama. Udyotakesari’s mother Kolavati is compared with Durga and Laksmi.[36] Udyotakesari’s father Yayati, in his Narasinghapur copper plates described as the representative of Madhusudana (Visnu)[37]

The Somavamsis were generally belonged to the lunar dynasty, which is evident from the inscriptions as Soma-kula-tilaka. Narasinghapur copper plates and Brahmesvara temple inscription of Udyotakesari, the Ratnagiri plates of king Karna were all asserted their lunar lineage.[38]

The Imperial Gangas:

The process of regional state formation was consolidated with the expansion and unification of the entire Orissa by the Ganga rule. From their southern homeland of Kalinganagara, Gangas initiated to expand towards the northern part in early 10th century. From the reign of Anantavarman Codaganga, Gangas were often referred as imperial Gangas (plate no 41-77). The inscriptions of Vajrahasta III refers that one of his ancestors named Vajrahasta son of Gunamahadeva united five branches of the Ganga family under his rule.[39] It is also assumed that these imperial Gangas were also belonged to the same family or a branch of the same family of the earlier Gangas of Kalinganagara. From the Mandasa plate of Anantavarman Codaganga, we came to know that Ganga kings are dated in the Saka era rather than Ganga era. The inscription of Vajrahasta III and his successors elaborately eulogised the ruling lineages with date of their consecration and rule.[40] We find thus Vajrahasta III was ruled between 1038 1070 A.D. His son Rajaraja I Devendravarman between 1070-1078 A.D. and Rajaraja I’s son Anantavarman Codaganga known to have ruled in between 1078-1147 A.D.

The copper plate grants of the early two rulers of the imperial Gangas were found mainly from Ganjam and Srikakulam districts, and Anantavarman Codaganga’s from further north, in around Puri district.[41] Few of his plates were issued from Dantapura (no. 41, 42, 46). The shifting place of issuances of Imperial Gangas shows that Anantavarman Codaganga has shifted his capital from Kalinganagara (Mukhalingam) to Cauduara Kataka (modern Chaudwar) or Abhinava Yayatinagara (modern Jaipur) after his conquest of Utkala in around 1112 A.D.

Prasastis found in the Ganga plates, contains elaborate genealogies and Virudas like Maharajadhiraja, Trikaling-Adhipati and Parama-Bhattaraka. They claimed to be the member of Atreya gotra. The genealogies found are of two versions. The shorter version found from the early Imperial Ganga rulers replaced by the elaborated one from the time of Anantavarman Codaganga. Anantavarman Codaganga’s Korni plates and Vishakhapattanam plates (65&68), vividly narrated the origin of the Ganga lineages. It traces the Ganga genealogy to the God Ananta (Visnu). It further stated that Turvasu (whose descent from the god is demonstrated), son of Yayati and grandson of Nahusa pray for many a years for son. Ultimately he wins or regains the favour of Ganga and obtained a son named Gangeya, the progenitor of the Gang-anvaya (Ganga lineage).[42] It also added to refer one of the king’s ancestors was Kolahala, who built the city of Kolahalapura in Gangadi Visaya. This account strongly recommends the possibility of that the Gangas were originated from the Karnataka area. From this account we came to know that Kamarnava from Kolahala’s lineage migrated from Kolahalapura to Mahendragiri and started worshipping the deity of Gokarnsvamin. Thereon he jointly with his four brothers conquered Kalinga by defeating Sabaraditya.[43]

The Imperial Gangas have had matrimonial alliances with the Haihayas and the Chalukyas and strong relationship with the Cholas.[44] In military campaigns they have been assisted by the Cholas. It is because of Anantavarman Codaganga’s mother Rajasundari, and his queen Coda-Mahadevi was Chola princess.[45] D.C. Sircar opines that the Cholas regarded the Gangas as their subordinate allies.[46] It comes out of the fact that Rajaraja Chola (985-1016) captured Vengi (from the Eastern Chalukyas) and Kalinga sometime before 1003 A.D. and Rajendra (1012-1044 A.D.) also included the tract of Odra and Kosala into his empire without mentioning any conflict with the Gangas.[47] Further Kulottunga Chola sends his army twice against Kalinga. On the first move probably before 1076 A.D., his army faced Ganga king Rajaraja and the second attack faced by the Anantavarman Codaganga.[48] Anantavarman eventually secured some portion of his lost territory and recovered up to Gangavadi by establishing Ganga suzerainty. Some time before 1134 A.D. Kulottunga Cholas II with his allies uprooted the Gangas from Gangavadi district.[49]

Anantavarman Codaganga for several times succeeded to invade up to the Bengal region when the Palas were weakening. Codaganga defeated the local chief Mandara and destroyed his loci named Aramya (identified with modern Arambag, Hoogly district).[50] But his further northward and westward moves were repressed by the strong presence of Kalachuri king Ratnadeva II of South Kosala and Paramara Laksmadeva of Malava.[51] His Srikakulam Telegu inscription stated that the extent of his empire was from Gautami (Godavari) to the Bhagirathi (branch of Ganges).[52] According to S.N. Rajguru Codaganga amalgamated Kalinga with Utkala.

Along with Imperial Ganga inscriptions, several grants have been found which records of many of the Ganga subordinate rulers or administrative officials (Nayakas). In such a grant Simhipura plates (no-43) the name of the donor was Ranaka Dharmakhedi of the Kadamba family,[53] residing at Jayantyapura, who has taken the title of Panca-Visaya-Mandlesvara (lord of five visayas and of a mondala and Mahendradhipati (lord of Mahendra). In Chirakol plate of Madhukavarnava (no44) we find the donor is Laksmana Ramadeva of the Kubhalavasa family and governor of Cincali Pattyapura in Kalinga-Mondala.

Another Kadamba feudatory, son of the earlier Dharmakhedi, Ranaka Sri-Bhimakhedi, found in Madagrama plates (no-54) of the time of Devendravarman, had taken the title of Mandalika and Samadhi-Gata-Panca-Mahasabda. Vanapati, another donor mentioned in the Dirghasi inscription (no-56), appears to have been a military commander of king Rajaraja. The inscription contemporaneous to the king Devendravarman at Gara (no-59) records the gift of 50 cows by a Nayaka (military commander) named Peddallu Gokana Nayaka to bear the cost of a perpetual lamp for the deity Narayanadeva. A governor of a territorial unit, named Kamandi, ranked as Disapati found donating a piece of land and money in favour of the deity Garttesvara, in Alagum inscription (no-72) of the time of Codaganga. It is suggested by Singh that he is probably from the country.

The royal seals found in Imperial Ganga inscriptions are large in variety. Motifs including couchant bull, crescent moon, elephant-goad, battle-axe, trident, umbrella, sword, tortoise, lotus, makara-torana (crocodile shape), conch, drum, plough share, pitcher, a vase of plenty (purna-ghata), Lingam in a snake’s head and more.

Vajrahasta and Rajaraja has been described as Parama-Mahesvara and Anantavarman-Codaganga, till his Korni plates (Saka 1034) known with the same epithet of Parama-Mahesvara. From that Korni plates, we find simultaneously used epithets of Parama-Mahesvara (in Vishakhapattanam plates of Saka year 1057), and Parama-Brahmanya (greatly devoted to the Brahmanas) and Parama-Vaisnava (in Vishakhapattanam plates of Saka year 1040).

In their eulogies the Ganga king is praised as one by whom the stain of the impurities of the Kali-age was washed away with the pure water of their taintless thoughts and deeds.[54] Inscriptions also speaks of the magnanimity of their sovereignty as samrajya being glorified by the sign of conch-cell (samkha), the drum (bheri), the five great sounds (panca-mahasabda), the white umbrella (dhabala-chattra), the golden fly-whisk (hema-camara) and the bull-crest (varavrsabha-lanchana).[55] All these items (emblems found in the seals of Palamgara and Vishakhapattanam plates) favoured by the lord Gokarnasvamin, who is the lord of all things and creator of this world having moon at his crest jewels.[56]

In Ganga genealogical account we found the mention of Gunamaharnava, who like Visnu, conquered the whole circle of earth by his military ability.[57] Vajrahasta II is found unparalleled to his generosity in his offerings a thousand elephants to mendicants.[58] Vinayamahadevi, the mother of Vajrahasta III is said to have born in the Vaidumba family. Rajaraja in Dirghasi inscription compared with the military prowess of Visnu (Cakrayudh-abhah). As Rajaraja is son of Vajrahasta and Ananga-Mahadevi compared with Kartikeya as the son of Hara and Gauri.[59] Elaborated genealogical accounts have found in Anantavarman’s Korni, Vishakhapattinam plates, Sellada plates, Murupaka plates, with an introduction familiar with Vajrahastadeva and Rajaraja-deva.

Nature of Kingship and Polity:

The above study of the Orissa inscriptions of early medieval period in three successive sub-eras clearly reveals that the nature of polity is exemplified by the rapidly shifting political compositions in various denominations. The rise of power of new lineages and emergence of newer foci of power, vied with each other, sometimes very short lived and tensed to disappear and displaced by the more powerful one. The frequency of displacement or subjugation by the older one and formation and gradual spreading of horizontal state formation is clearly visible in the above studied information from their grants. The contours constant reshaping of geo-poli bases were being on the cost of war and its reversals.

The information found in these grants shows the pattern of migration of the ruling lineages. It includes the place of origin of the lineages and the spatial mobility, the issuance of their later grants. It shows that the Panduvamsis were come from Mekala, nearer to Amarkantak. The Tungas from Rohitagiri, identified with Rohtasgarh, in Sahabad district of Bihar. The Bhaumakaras probably came from Assam. The Somavamsis were originated from south Kosala, or the modern Raipur-Bilashpur-Sambalpur area. The Gangas, both the Svetakas, Kalinganagara and the imperial line, were originated from Karnataka. Several inscriptions of the Bhanjas are indicative of the presence of the various lineages with a common clan character. The Ganga inscription, its genealogical account shows the simultaneous presence of collateral lineages.

In the first phase of local state formation from 3rd - 4th to 6th - 7th century A.D., the emergence of prolific lineage formation was started. According to P.K. Mishra, the genesis of the sustained state-society formation was rooted in the tribal areas and the later stronger bases of dynastic control like the Early Gangas, the Sailodbhabas, the Bhanjas, the Sulkis, and even the Bhauma-karas has a close tribal involvement in the beginning of their rule.[60] Their rise to power from tribal society to monarchical state society was largely possible through the gradual development of the local agricultural activity. The proliferation of the land grants proves that the land become the centre of economic as well as political activity. Tribal chiefs from now on started becoming territorial ruling head. Their control over land and constant need to territorial expansion and its development is the key to the consolidation of the state formation process.

The period from 3rd–-4th to 6th -7th century A.D. may come as the nascent phase of sustainable monarchical state formation. We find some ruling lineages even have relations with dynasties outside Orissa. The ruling heads of this phase started assuming the title of Maharaja. In the sub-regional phase, from the 6th - 7th to the 9th - 10th century A.D., the multiplicity of emerging ruling lineages was found in all over Orissa. Some stronger bases of power emerged by incorporating the territory of the weaker lineages which expressed in the higher epithets like Maharajadhiraja and subordinated status of the incipient kings. The ideology of kingship started expressing its inherent strength by Prasastis and the appearance of dynastic origin myths. In this period the Sailodbhvas, the Bhaumakaras were able to curve out relatively larger kingdoms. In the next phase of regional state formation, Somavamsis and the Imperial Gangas managed to subjugate greater parts of Orissa and become the regional power. The minor kingdoms still persisted in the peripheral areas. The royal epithets of the Somavamsis and the Imperial Gangas are becoming more emphatic with their claims. Their grants we find elaborated genealogies’ and mythical prelude with eponymous originator of that dynasty.

In eulogies we find not only the achievements of the royal line but also the emphatic titles which provide valuable information on the hierarchical structure of the rulers and relationship with the other administrative officials. Kings allegiance with the god is also visible from these grants, for which frequent donations were being made by the rulers and minor kings. Territorial claims inherent with the titles, though not always indicative precisely the extent of their rule, but represent the ideology of kingship or the territorial ideal to which the kings of a particular period aspired.

In period I we find titles like Kaling-Adhipati, Sakala-Kaling-Adhipati, Devarastr-Adhipati and Tri-Kaling-Adhipati. In period II- Sakala-Kalinga-Adhipati found with Sri-Nandagiri-Natha. In period III, the Regional phase, Astasiti-Sahasr-Adhipati, Samasta-Khinjali-Des-Adhipati, Samasta-Gondorama-Natha, Sakala-Gondram-Adhipati, Astadasa-Gondram-Adhipati, and Tri-Kaling-Adhipati.

The political supremacy reflected in titles like Maharaj-Adhiraja (supreme king of Maharajas), Parama-Bhattaraka (entitled to supreme reverence), and Paramesvara (supreme lord). Out of these three paramount epithets, generally used in post-Gupta period, only Gopacandra, claimed as Maharaj-Adhiraja (supreme king of Maharajas) in period I, but in period II & III, these supreme titles often borne by the kings sometimes the both.

Titles reflected the modest or subordinate status in Period I were like Maharaja, Samanta, Maha-Samanta, and Maha-Pratihara; in period II, we find Maharaja, Ranaka, Panca-Visaya-Mandlesvara, Panca-Visay-Adhipati, Maha-Mandalesvara and Maha-Mandal-Adhipati; in Period III, Maharaja, Ranaka, Maha-Mandalesvara, Maha-Samant-Adhipati, Panca-Visaya-Mandlesvara, and Panca-Visaya-Mandal-Adhipati. These titles show the ranks and designations of the subordinate rulers of that age.

Kings were often inscribed themselves as have received obedience of the Samantas or the circle of Samantas. Subordinate kings with status Samadhi-Gata-Panca-Mahasabda, denotes that one who obtained or enjoying the five great sounds of five instruments. Kings with lower status described themselves in their eulogies to the overlord, as pad-anudhyata, one who mediates on the feet of the paramount overlord. Samantas were usually appear with the dates that started by their sovereign ruler. In Bhauma-kara and Ganga grants (of Kalinganagara) we find lesser kings appear as vijnapti or petitioner, on whose request the grant of land was being made.

All these hierarchical status of rulers are indicative of inter-relationships among various ruling lineages, their political attainments and designations. The status in the hierarchy could easily be change with the military fortunes of the rulers. Inscriptions are also indicative of the ties of the ruling lineages may be of military or matrimonial.

The accounts of the genealogies appeared in these grants are important to ascertain the origin of the ruling lineages. Most of the dynasties originated from the tribal status. The Sailodbhvas, Kulikas, Sulkis, Bhauma-karas suggest a tribal origin. The use of gotra name shows the social status of the rulers, that they were of Brahmana or non-Brahmana family.

These grants are also helpful in understanding the changing pattern of kingship from early to later phases. Epigraphs with representation of king’s mythical origin, association with local religious beliefs, his dynastic traditions, caste status, consecration rituals, Chakravartin ideal, king’s protector and donor image and as divine heroic figure how he establishes his control over the society. In the imperial phase from early tribal elements kingship intrinsically associated with the Brahmanical character. The growth of kingship ultimately assimilated into Brahmanical monarchical pattern in the late or imperial phase with the introduction and proliferation of temple construction. In the imperial phase the regional imperial powers were intensively involved in temple constructions. The Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneswar (mid-eleventh century A.D.), the Jagannatha temple at Puri (1135 A.D.), and Sun temple Konarak (1238-58 A.D.) are some noteworthy example of this royal policy. These constructions exhibit the power and strength of the state to his subjects and rivals. It simultaneously shows us the significant change in the royal dana system and the changing pattern of validation over his subordinates. Kingship by doing this doubtlessly established their religious authority and also achieved vertical supremacy over his administration. The temple building or construction of religious institutions and gave donations for their expenses were started in pre-imperial phase of our study but it was gathered momentum in the imperial phase.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

R.C. Majumdar, (ed.), The History of Bengal, Dacca, 1943, p.432

[2]:

R.C. Majumdar, ‘Singhara Plates of Ranaka Ranabhanja Deva’, Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, 6, PT.4, 1920, p.484, II, 10-11

[3]:

Ibid, second plate, 1.5

[4]:

R.C. Majumdar, ‘Three Copper Plates records of Sonpur’, Epigraphica Indica, 11, 1911-12, p.100 & R.D. Banerji, ‘Patna Museum Plates of Ranabhanja -the year 22’, Epigraphica Indica, 20, 1929-30, p.101

[5]:

S.N. Rajguru, ‘Three Stone Inscriptions of Baripada Museum with Plates,’ Orissa Historical Research Journal, 1 NO.2, 1952, pp.178-79

[6]:

R.D. Banerjee, History of Orissa from earliest times to the British Period, vol.1, Calcutta, 1931, p.181

[7]:

Binayak Mishra, ‘Maurya Chandragupta and Mayurbhanj Rulers,’ Indian Historical Quarterly, 13, 1937, p.423

[8]:

D.C. Sircar, ‘Puri Plate of Kulastambha,’ Epigraphica Indica, 29, pt.6, 1952, p.167

[9]:

H. P. Shastri, ‘Seven Copper Plate Records of Land Grants from Dhenkanal,’ Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, 2, pt. 4, 1916, p.406

[10]:

D.C. Sircar, ‘Puri Plate of Kulastambha,’ Epigraphica Indica, 29, pt.6, 1952, p.167

[11]:

U. Singh, Kings, Brahmanas and Temples in Orissa, p-67

[12]:

R.D. Banerji, ‘Talcher Plate of Gayadatungadeva’, JPASB, N.S. 12, 1916, p-291; N.K Sahu, ‘Talcher Copper Plate Grant of Sri Gayada Tunga’, Orissa Historical Research Journal, 7, NO. 1, 1958, p-67.

[13]:

D.C. Sircar, ‘Grants of Gayadatunga’, Epigraphica Indica, 34, Pt. 3, 1961, p-95, II. 1-3.

[14]:

B. Misra, Dynasties of Medieval Orissa, Calcutta, 1936, p-23-26.

[15]:

K.C. Panigrahi, ‘Baripada Museum Plate of Devanandadeva’, Epigraphica Indica, 26, 1941-42, p-77

[16]:

D.C. Sircar, ‘Two Plates of Devanandadeva’, Epigraphica Indica, 27, 1947-48, p-326.

[17]:

D.C. Sircar, ‘Two Plates of Devanandadeva’, p.236

[18]:

N. Tripathi, ‘The Jayapura Copper Plate Grant of Dhruvananda Deva,’ Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, 16, pt.3 & 4, 1930, p.446

[19]:

U.P. Singh, op.cit. p.70

[20]:

D.C. Sircar, Indian Epigraphy, Delhi, 1965, p.133

[21]:

S.N. Rajguru, ‘Hindol Plate of Pracandadeva of Kulika Vamsa,’ Orissa Historical Research Journal, 12, NO, 1, 1964, p.4-8

[22]:

D.K. Ganguly, op.cit. p.57

[23]:

D.C. Sircar, ‘Two Inscriptions from Kelga,’ Epigraphica Indica, 28, pt.7, 1950, p.325

[24]:

D.C. Sircar, ‘The Later Somavamsi,’ Orissa Historical Research Journal, 1, no.4, 1953, p.290-91; K.C, Panigrahi, The Chronology of the Bhauma-karas and the Somavamsi of Orissa, Bhopal, 1961, pp.7-8

[25]:

K.C. Panigrahi, op.cit. pp.7-8

[26]:

D.C. Sircar, ‘Balangir Museum Plates of Mahasivagupta I Yajati; Regnal Year 8,’ JASBL, 19, 1953, pp.119-20

[27]:

S.N. Rajguru, op.cit. 4, pp.219-20

[28]:

S.N. Rajguru, op.cit. 4, pp.19-20, II, 71-72

[29]:

D.C. Sircar, ‘Two Inscriptions from Kelga,’ Epigraphica Indica, 28, p.7, 1950, p.325, II. 6-7

[30]:

D.C. Sircar, ‘The Later Somavamsis,’ Orissa Historical Research Journal, 1, no.4, 1953, pp.296-300

[31]:

L.P. Pandey, ‘The Maha Kosala Historical Society’s Plate of Mahabhavaguptarajadeva,’ Epigraphica Indica, 22, 1933-34, p.136

[32]:

Binayak Misra, ‘Narasinghapur Charter of Udyotakesari-Mahabhavagupta IV,’ Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, 17, 1930-31, p.15

[33]:

B. C. Chhabra, ‘Sonepur Plates of Maha-bhavagupta (II) Janmejaya; the year 17, Epigraphica Indica, 23, 1936, p.251

[34]:

S.N. Rajguru, op.cit. 4, p-160, II. 10-11.

[35]:

Ibid. 4:219-47

[36]:

Ibid, 4:247.

[37]:

Binayak Mishra, op.cit. p.16, II, 22-23

[38]:

D.C. Sircar, ‘Note on Ratnagiri Plates of Somavamsi Karna,’ Epigraphica Indica, 33, pt.6, 1960, p.269, II, 3-4

[39]:

Sten Konow, ‘Khariar Plates of-Maha-Sudeva,’ Epigraphica Indica, 9, 1907-08, p.149

[40]:

D.C. Sircar, Indian Epigraphy, pp.228-33; refers Arasavalli grant of Vajrahasta (49), mentioning “kara-vasu-nidhi’. The chronogram stands for numerals 2, 8 & 9 respectively. The reversal order of this chronogram gives us the date of Saka Era 982.

[41]:

Several numbers of grants of the Imperial Gangas were found in temple walls of Andhra Pradesh and mostly inscribed in Telegu language or script.

[42]:

J.F. Fleet, ‘Sanskrit and Old-Kanarese Inscriptions,’ Indian Antiquity, 18, 1889, p.166, II, 1-19

[43]:

J.F. Fleet, op.cit. p.166, II, 35-49. Sabaraditya might be a chieftain from Savara tribe.

[44]:

S.N. Rajguru, op.cit. 3, pt.2 pp.382-83

[45]:

Ibid.

[46]:

D.C. Sircar, “Alagum Inscriptions of Anantavarman, Regnal Year 62”, Epigraphica Indica, 29, pt.2, April-1951, pp.46-47

[47]:

Ibid.

[48]:

D.K. Ganguly in R.C. Majumder, Gen. (ed.) The History and Culture of the Indian People, 11 Vols, Bombay, 1951-77, 5, p.205

[49]:

Ibid, p.206

[50]:

R.C. Majumder, (ed.), op.cit. 5, p.206

[51]:

Ibid.

[52]:

S.N. Rajguru, op.cit. 3, pt.1, pp.174-75

[53]:

A branch of the western Kadambas of the Kanarese country, U. Singh, op.cit. p.77

[54]:

Sten Konow, ‘Narasapatam Plates of Vajrahasta III; Saka-Sambat-967,’ Epigraphica Indica, 11, 1911-12, p.149, II, 5-11

[55]:

C.R. Krishnamacharlu, ARSIE, 1935-36, p-61

[56]:

Sten Konow, op.cit. p.149, II, 4-5

[57]:

Ibid. p.150, II, 14-15

[58]:

Ibid. p.150, II, 23-25

[59]:

D.C. Sircar, ‘Two Grants from Galavalli,’ Epigraphica Indica, 31, 1955-56, p.196, II, 38-39

[60]:

P.K. Mishra, Evolution of Orissa and her Culture, Calcutta, 1984, p.4

Like what you read? Consider supporting this website: