Part 3 - Mahanadi Delta region: Sub Period II: 600-900 A.D.

[Full title: Mahanadi Delta region: Sub Period II: 600-900A.D. (Sub-Regional Phase)]

In late 6^th and beginning of the 7^th century A.D. the Sailodbhavas established their rule over Kongada or in South and central Orissa. Most of their inscriptions found in this area of Ganjam and Puri district. Khurda plates of Madhavaraja we find the title of Sakala-Kalingadhipati which indicates Sailodbhavas military success over Puri-Ganjam area. But his successors did not appear with that victorious epithet. The centres of issuance of Sailodbhavas grants were of several centres: Kongada (also the capital of Sailodbhavas) on the bank of river Salima river, Sridhara-Pura, Kataka, Kontalayi (identified with Kalahandi on the Chilka lake), asilida/Silida and Saumyapura.

The earliest Sailodbhava record of Maharaja Maha-Samanta Madhavaraja (alias Sainya-Bhita or Srinivasa found in other inscriptions) is dated in Gupta era 300 i.e. AD 619-20. In the Ganjam plates of Madhavaraja we find that he was a subordinate of Maharajadhiraja–Sri Sasanka but his other plates are silent on his over lordship. Madhavaraja might have upgraded his status to an independent ruler due to Sasanka defeat in the hands of Harsa. The reign of the sixth Sailodbhava ruler Dharmaraja we find occurrence of succession dispute. This Puri plate has reference of quarrel between Dharmaraja and his brother Madhava. Madhava had allied himself with a king named Tivara and was defeated twice by Dharmaraja. The Sailodbhava copper plate grants we find a systematic genealogy of these kings with an account of the origin of the dynasty that indicates the miraculous birth of its mythical progenitor. The Buguda plate of Madhava-Varman narrates the standard account of their genealogy where we find Pulindasena, a famous man of Kalinga who prayed to Svayambhu for a man worthy to rule the earth. From this prayer was Sailodbhava emerged as he was seen emerging from a rock breaking asunder. Rana-Bhita was evidently emerged as the first historical king of this family.^[1]

From the Buguda plate of Madhava-Varman Sainya-Bhita onwards the occurrence of performance of Asvamedha and Vajapeya sacrifices are frequently observed. This clearly indicates a claim to independent status. We find that only the Sailodbhava kings have actually taken the imperial title of Dharmaraja. Madhabavarman’s Nivina plates noticed the title of Parama-Bhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja and Paramesvara.

Most of the Sailodbhava records bear the seal of couchant bull motif of Siva with sometimes crescent moon. The epithets appeared in the Sailodbhava inscription, like Ganjam plates of Madhavavarman we find Parama-Brahmanya (greatly devoted to the Brahmanas).^[2] The eulogy of his Baguda plates compares him with Siva and described him as the rescuer from the sins of Kali age. The Banpur plates of Madhavavarman also compare the king with Sambhu.^[3] His ability as an archer is compared with Prtha, or Arjuna,^[4] which found in other Sailodbhava records also. Madhavavarman is as well described as the worshipper of the feet of Hari and compared with Krauncha, i.e. Kartikeya.^[5]

In around 8^th century with the decline of the Sailodbhavas in parts of Dhenkanal as well as some parts of Ganjam, Puri, Cuttak were under the rule of the Nettbhanja. His copper plates issued from Angulapatta (Angul, Dhenkanal district) and Russelkonda plates issued from Baruda on the banks of Loharakandi river, claimed that the king belongs to Drumarajaa Kula. His Baud plates bear the figure of seated lion, and records generally start with Siva spell. With prayer to the lord it invokes protection of the many coloured matted locks of Sthanu (Siva). In his Russelkonda plates, we find invocation to Sankara or Siva the supreme god.^[6] He found with epithets of Parama-Brahmanya (greatly devoted to the Brahmanas) and Parama-Mahesvara.^[7]

During this age in the north Ganjam area we find the rule of Gangas of Svetaka. Most of their grants dated in either Ganga or Bhaumakara era. King Samantavarman, the first known Svetaka Ganga king and king Jayavaraman introduced in their inscriptions with modest titles as Ranaka and Maharaja. Later inscriptions of Bhupendravarman, Anantavarman and Prithivi-Varman and Indravarman appeared with greater titles of Maharajadhiraja, Paramesvara and Paramabhattaraka. Svetaka Gangas claim to have captured the supremacy over Kalinga by their own strength and prowess. It further describes of having all the Samantas (in some cases, circles of Samantas) devoted due to the pre-eminence of their three fold power(Probhu-Sakti, Mantra-Sakti and Utsaha-Sakti -the power of majesty, good council and energy). Later king Indravarman assumed the title of Nandragiri-Nath which is identified with Nandidurg, nearer to Kolar in Karnataka. This suggests that the Gangas of Svetakas were migrants from Karnataka area.

The motifs found in records of Gangas of Svetakas are couchant bull with crescent and lotus. Almost all the rulers bear the title of Parama-Mahesvara. Their affiliation to Saiva is witnessed in eulogies where the worship of lotus feet of Gokarnesvara-Svamin is described as praiseworthy.

All the inscriptions of the Gangas of Kalinganagara (14-40) were issued from Kalinganagara. The grants referred the Gangeya Era from the time of Anantavarman (no 22). Early few Ganga rulers have used the title Maharaja. We find the epithet Maharajadhiraja was first used with Rajendravarman, mentioned by his sons Shalantri plates and Chicacole plates (no. 24-25). Son Devendravarman also used the same for himself in his Chicacole plates. The successors of Devendravarman frequently attached higher epithets like Paramesvara, Maharajadhiraja and Paramabhattaraka. In these inscriptions, Ganga kings are claiming of greater territorial control over Kalinga.

Some inscriptions record land grants by the subordinates of the Gangas. In King Vajrahasta’s Parlakimedi plates (34) the donor named as Pancha-Visay-Adhipati Daraparaja the described him as belonging to the Ganga kula and the son of Chola Kamadiraja. Another Nirakarapur plate (36) the contributor was Udayakhedi, son of Ugrakhedi of the Kadamba family.^[8]

The seal found in the inscriptions of Gangas of Kapilnagara is of same nature of the Gangas of Svetakas. They also use the motif of couchant bull with crescent and kings are generally describing them as Parama-Mahesvara.

In north Orissa, in the middle of 8^th or the beginning of the 9^th century a greater part of central and northern Orissa came under the sway of the Bhoumakaras. The era used in the Bhoumakara inscriptions is the Harsa era of A.D. 606.^[9] R.D. Banerjee speaks of the possibilities of Bhoumakara inscriptions related to the Ganga era started in 778 A.D.^[10] But S.N. Rajguru and D.C. Sircar are of view that the Bhoumakaras established their own era.^[11] K.C. Panigrahi^[12] has place the beginning of the Bhoumakara era in A.D. 736 but D.C. Sircar place it in A.D. 831.^[13] Scholars have divergent views related to the origin of the Bhoumakara dynasty.^[14]

Most of the inscriptions of the Bhoumakaras have been found in Baleshwar, Dhencanal, Phulbani, Cuttack, Puri and Gangam districts. Guhadevapataka or Guhesvarapataka was the place from where Bhoumakara copper plates were issued which was identified with the place nearer to modern Jaipur on the Viatarani River.^[15] Early king Subhakara I used the title Maharaja and his successors bear with higher imperial titles of Paramesvara, Maharajadhiraja and Paramabhattaraka and their queens with modified Parama-bhattarika, Maharajadhiraja and Paramesvari. Inscriptions generally contained genealogical information related to the dynasty. It is also that the Bhoumakaras had matrimonial alliances with the Bhanjas and the Somavamsis indicated in Baud plates (Bhouma year 158) of Bhouma queen Prithivimahadevi also known as Tribhuvanamahadevi. She is mentioned as the daughter of Svabhavatunga of the Sitamsu Vamsa who was the lord of Kosala. The Taltali plates of Bhouma queen Dharmamahadevi claiming herself of belonging to the Bhanja family. The Dhenkanal plates of Tribhuvanamahadevi mentioned the marriage of Bhouma king Lalitahara with the daughter of Rajamalladeva identified with western Ganga king Rajamalla I (A.D. 817-853)^[16] .

Inscriptions also indicate the presence of subordinate rulers under the Bhouma-Karas. The names appear as Vijnapti (on whose request the grant was made) include Pulindaraja (Hindol plate of Subhakaradeva) and Ranaka-Vinitatunga (Talcher plates of Sivarakaradeva). The Vijnapti of the Buad plates of Tribhuvana Mahadevi was one Sasilekha, wife of Mahamandalndhipati Mangalesvara.^[17] The Santiragrama Plate of Dandimahadevi mentioned of Ranaka Apsarodeva, lord of Yamagarta-Mandal. Around the end of 10^th century Bhouma-Kara rule was occupied by the Somavamsis.

The inscriptions of the Bhauma-kara kings are the motifs of couchant bull with moon, sun and elephant and various floral motifs. Early Bhaumakara kings, especially we find Maharaja Subha-kara in his Neulpur plate is described him with title Parama-Saugata (great devotee of Buddha.) and further the son of Parama-Tathagata Sri-Sivakara-Deva and grandson of the Parama-Upasaka Sri-Ksemankara-Deva, who at first said to have established the varnas and asramas as its proper status.^[18] The Hamsevara temple inscription of Madhavadevi, queen of Subhakara, shows her inclination towards Saivism. The Terundia plate of Subhakara II describes him as Parama-Saugata and also claimed to establish the order of the varnas and asramas in the Krta Yuga, in accordance with the sastras.^[19] His father king Sivakara’s inscription claims of being Sri-Saugata-Asrayah (one who take the refuge under Saugata). While Subhakara II’s grandfather being a Parama-Upasaka compares him with king Puru, Dilipa, Yudhisthira and Bhima.^[20]

The later kings show affiliation to Brahmanical religiosity. Both Visnu and Siva has got importance in the Bhaumakara inscriptions. Tribhuvana Mahadevi of Dhenkanal plate describes herself as Parama-Vaisnavi and compared with goddesses Katayani and Sri.^[21] The Talcher plate of Subhakara IV we find the title of the king as Parama-Mahesvara.^[22] In the same inscription, Tribhuvana Mahadevi is found with worshipping to the lotus feet of Hari (Visnu). King Kusumahara in his Talcher plate, portrayed as an incarnation of Bharata, Bhagadatta, and Bhagiratha.^[23] Later rulers also take refuge to be Parama-Mahesvara or queens as Parama-Mahesvari. Interestingly the rulers of this dynasty frequently compared themselves with the Kalpa-Tree (One of the trees of Indra’s heaven that can fulfil all the wishes)^[24] to prove their munificence.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Pulindas were the ancient tribe, B.C. Law, Tribes in Ancient India, Poona, 2^nd edn. 1973, chp. 2

[2]:

E. Hultzsch, ‘Plates of the Time of Sasankaraja; Gupta Sambat 300,’ Epigraphica Indica. 6, 1900-01, p.145

[3]:

F. Kielhorn, ‘Buguda Plates of Madhavavarman,’ Epigraphica Indica. 3, 1894-95, p.43

[4]:

Idid, p.44, II, 20-22

[5]:

Y.R. Gupta, ‘Kondedda Grant of Dharmaraja,’ Epigraphica Indica. 19, 1927-28, p.269, II, 27-28, 32

[6]:

B. Mishra, ‘Copper Plate Grant of Nettabhanja,’ Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, 17, Pt. 1, 1930-31, pp.113- 14 and D.C. Sircar, ‘Russellkonda Plates of Nettabhanja, Regnal year 26’, Epigraphica Indica, 28, 1950, p.262

[7]:

B. Mishra, op.cit. p.114

[8]:

D.C. Sircar, in R.C. Majumdar; (ed.), The History and Culture of the Indian People, vol.4, p.145

[9]:

Binayak Mishra, Orissa under the Bhauma Kings, Calcutta, 1934, p.78

[10]:

R.D. Banerjee, ‘The Kara of Orissa,’ Modern Review, 44, no. 6, 1928, pp.636-640

[11]:

S.N. Rajguru, ‘The Bhauma-Sambat’, Orissa Historical Research Journal, 12, No-1, 1964, pp.100-108

[12]:

K.C. Panigrahi, The Chronology of the Bhauma-Karas and the Somavamsis of Orissa, Bhopal, 1961, pp.6-8

[13]:

D.C. Sircar, ‘The Era of the Bhauma-Karas of Orissa’, Indian Historical Quarterly, 29, NO.2, 1953, pp.148155

[14]:

R.N. Mishra, as ‘Bhuyan tribe’, in Orissa under the Bhauma Kings, Calcutta, 1934, pp.80-81; Umakanta Subuddhi related the family with Utkala branch of the Bhouma family of Kamarupa, in The Bhaumakaras of Orissa, Calcutta, 1978, pp.32-36

[15]:

R.N. Mishra, Orissa under the Bhauma Kings, Calcutta, 1934, p.89

[16]:

K.C. Panigrahi, The Chronology of the Bhauma-Karas and the Somavamsis of Orissa, Bhopal, 1961, pp.27-29

[17]:

Title of the ruler or governor of the territorial unit named Mandala suggested by D.C. Sircar, Indian Epigraphical Glossary, Delhi, 1966, pp.179-80

[18]:

R.D. Banerji, ‘Neulpur Grant of Subhakara: the 8^th year’, Epigraphica Indica, 15, 1919-20, pp.2-3

[19]:

D.C. Sircar, ‘Terundia Plate of Subhakara II’, Epigraphica Indica, 28pt. 5, 1950, p.215

[20]:

Ibid. II, pp.8-9

[21]:

Hara Prasad Sastri, ‘Seven Copper Plate Records of Land Grants from Dhenkanal’, Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, 2, pt.4, 1916, p.423

[22]:

R.N. Misra, Orissa under the Bhauma Kings, p.35

[23]:

Ibid, II, pp.22-23

[24]:

Sanskrit-English Dictionary, By M. Monier-Williams; p.262