Hindu Society as Recorded in the Padma-Purana

Some Salient features of Hindu Society as Recorded in the Padma-Purana [padmapurane nirdistani hindusampradayasya kanicit pramukhatattvani] / By Asoke Chatterjee ; Head of the Purana Deptt. Sanskrit University Varanasi / 154-178

[ padmapuranasya nirmanakale hindu-loke kidrsamannapanam vyava- hriyate sma tadanim kidrsi ca strinam dasa'vartata, loke ca ke ke dharmikah sampradayastada pracaranta iti sarvamasminnibandhe lekhaka mahodayena samya- galocitam | srasmin prasange ca padmapuranasya nirmanasthanamadau puskaramasit, pascacca uttarabharatasya gurjaraprabhrtisu vibhinnapradesesu racita amsa asmin kale kale samyojita asan, evam vartamanapadmapuranasya samgrathanam 800-1000 varsesu samjatamityapyatra vivecitam | evamasya puranasyamsanam bahudesesu bahukalesu ca racitatvat tadanim pracaritanam lokavyavaharanam visaye vartate'sya puranasya saksyasya mahattvam | idam puranamadau brahmamasit tadanantaram vaisnavadharmasya pratipadaka amsa atra samyojitah pascacca saivairapi sivamahatmya pratipadaka amsa atra samghatitah | tathapi purakhamidam visnusivayorabhedameva pratipadayati prayena, ubhayoh sampradayayorvisaye ca sahisnutvam pradarsayati | sauraganapatyasakta- visayaka sramsa srapyatra varttante | lekhaka mahodayenatra svavisayasya vedadarabhya puranaparyantam vikasakramah pradarsitah, sthane sthane ca silalekhadayo'pi samuddhrtah | ] 1 It is known that the Padma-p. was originated first in Puskara (near Ajmer) but gradually its contents were enlarged by writers belonging to different parts of North India. A vast territory from Gujrat to Assam appears to be the place of its composition. The Srsti-khanda was composed in Gujrat while its appendix i. e. Dharma-p. in the eastern part of India. It can be noticed that it took at least 800-1000 years for this Purana to reach its present shape. It is, therefore, that the value and interest of this monumental work as a record of social and religious history should be carefully studied. We propose to discuss very briefly here the state of society as recorded in the Padma-p.

July, 1968] HINDU SOCIETY IN PADMA-PURANA FOOD AND DRINK 155 2 The Puranic lists of different kinds of food and drink are not only more elaborate than the number and types of food available in the Rgveda, the Brahmanas and the Jatakas, but as they contain quite a number of new and obscure terms referring to different kinds of foods, they deserve our most careful consideration. Among the food grains mentioned in the Rgveda, we find indirect references to yava and dhanya.¹ There should be no hesitation in holding that these two constituted the principal food of the people. But in times of the Brahmanas we find a few more articles added to the list of food suggested in the Rgveda. Thus in the period of the Brahmanas, the people developed the habit of eating vrihi, priyangu, tila, godhuma and masa. In the Jatakas, sixteen names of field-crops have been mentioned. But in this Purana there is a good deal of references to the different kinds of corn and varieties of fruits. People were in the habit of of taking vrihi, yava, godhuma, anu, tila, priyangu, kobidara, koradusa, cinaka, masa, mudga, masura, nispava, kulattha, adhaka, canaka and sana. These seventeen kinds of corn were produced in fields adjoining to the villages. Besides these there were some other corn which were largely cultivated in some arable lands in the forests. These were syamaka, nivara, jartila, gavedhuka, venuyava and markataka." Among these products of fields, godhuma, yava, vrihi, tila, masa and canaka constituted the principal foods of the people in general. Godhuma in particular was very much liked and some cooked food, prepared from it was often offered to Laksmi, the goddess of wealth. Apart from these principal foods there were two other things which were loved and liked by the people. They are cocoanuts and payasa (a preparation of rice boiled with milk and sugar). Clarified butter, 1. Cf. Cambridge History of India, Vol. I. pp. 99-101. 2. D. R. Patil, Cultural History from the Vaju-Purana, p. 211. 3. Ratilal Mehta, Pre-Buddhist India, p. 19. 4. Srsti-khanda, 3. 137-138. 5. Srsti-khanda, 3. 141. 6. Uttara-khanda, 60. 25-26. 7. Brahma-khanda, 11. 41. 8. Uttara-khanda, 26. 37, 39.

156 puranam - PURANA [Vol. X, No. 2 oil, salt, curd, ksira and guda were the principal means of cooking food. Among the drinks honey deserves special mention. Rgvedic Indians used honey with food. 10 Honey is mentioned in the Sata patha Brahmana as the life-sap of the sky." The Atharva-Veda includes it in its list of Madhuparka." According to the Padmap. honey is the most favourite drink. Wine and other liquors, sugarcanes, vegetables and varieties of fruits also were taken by the people.13 Tambula i. c. betel (piper betle) was freely used.14 There were prohibitions in taking some foods. One should never eat chatraka (mushroom-the common name of certain fungi), nalika (a plant growing on a hollow stem), hingu (asafoetida, nim), palandu (onion-allium cepa), putika (a plant-psorabea corilifolia), lasuna (garlic-allium sativum), mulaka (roots), tumbika (long gourd, lagenaria vulgaris), kapittha, vrntaka (egg-plant-solanum melongena), sigru (morunga guilandina and hyperanthera), and kusmanda (pumpkin, benincasa cerifera).15 These prohibited articles were so much looked down upon that it has been repeatedly remarked that various diseases visit a person who takes even one of these things. Not only this, but mushroom, the meat of an animal destroyed by poison, the stalk of a potherb in addition to those above-mentioned articles of food, bring misfortune (alaksmi).16 Men incur sin if they eat onion, garlic (morunga guilandina and hyperanthera), bottle gourd (lagenaria vulgaris), ganja (cannabis sativa) and poisoned flesh. Observance of Candiayana is necessary for 9. Bhumi-khanda, 41. 42-43. 10. A. C. Das, Rgvedic Culture, p. 206. 11. Sacred Books of the East, 41. 390. 12. Patil, op. cit. p. 213. 13. Bhumi-khanda, 67. 92-93. 14. Ibid., 4.26; 20.29; 40.42; 41.42; 62-76; 67.19; etc. Uttara-khanda, 26.37 etc. etc. 15. Brahma-Khanda, 21. 20-21. chatrakam nalikam hingu lasunam mulakam sithru kapittham caiva vrntakam palandu putikadalam | tathaiva tumbikaphalam || kusmandam (? kusmandam ) 11 For the scientific names of these terms see H. Mukherjee, Plant Groups, pp. 478, 521 and 598. 16. Ibid., 9. 16-17.

July, 1968] HINDU SOCIETY IN PADMA-PURANA 157 the removal of sin accruing from eating and drinking prohibited articles.17 RELATION AND ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE WOMAN Women in general enjoyed a high status in the Rg-Vedic period. It is found in the Rgveda that "the wife on her marriage was at once given an honoured position in the house; she is emphatically the mistress in her husband's home".18 But in course of time that exalted position was no longer offered to her she was not given proper respects in the Brahmana period, and even in the early Buddhistic literature we find that she was neglected. Even Buddha himself was unwilling to take her to the Buddhist Order.19 But the Puranic idea of a woman was more akin to that of the Rg-Veda. Dr. Patil 20 opines that 'condemnatary remarks about her are rarely found in it' (Vayu-p.). The Padma-p. also confirms that woman in general received a great regard from man. This is proved by a number of allegorical stories of which the episode of Sunitha deserves our attention. Sunitha was the daughter of the king of the dead. She obstructed the penance of a Gandharva, Susankha by name, and annoyed him. But Susankha, though enraged, controlled himself, and refrained himself from cursing her, as she was a woman."1 According to Kane, the idea that woman should not be killed on any account is a very ancient one. It has also been enjoined in the Satapatha Brahmana that a woman ought not be killed.28 The evidences of the epics also 17. Ibid. 19, 10-11 palandu lasunam sigrumalabum grnjanam palam | bhunkte yo vai naro brahman vratam candrayanam caret || For the scientific name of 'ganja' see A.C. Dutta, A class Book of Botany, p. 601. 18. Vedic Index, 1. 484. 19. Oldenberg. Buddha, 164, 377 etc. Cf. also B. C. Law, Women in Buddhist Literature. 20. Patil, op. cit. p. 152. 21. Bhumi-khanda, 29, 48 ff. 22. P. V. Kane, History of Dharmasastra, II, p. 593. 23. S. Br., XI. 4. III. 2. stri vaisa yac-chuir-na vai striyam ghnanti. 7

158 coincide with this. puranam - PURANA [Vol. X, No. 2 The Padma-p. also opines that a woman should not be killed. 25 From the Sukari-upakhyana of the Bhumikhanda we come to know that the she-boar, although responsible for the destruction of innumerable human beings, was not killed by the king, though repeatedly asked to do so by his wife. In fact, he did not venture to kill her (she-boar) as he was afraid of incurring sin thereby. A man who kills a woman, commits sin and he has to make an atonement for that sin.26 Great importance has been laid on the sacred tie that knits the husband and wife.27 It is obvious that the sanctity of this bondage 28 is as old as the Rg-Veda 29. It has been said that the husband is the only resting place of married woman 30 whose only duty is to look after her husband. She is the most wretched person who fills her stomach with food without giving the same to her husband. Such wicked woman is born in 'naraka' in her next birth and made to suffer. From an episode in the Uttara- 24. Cf. Mahabharata, I. 158. 31. 'avadhyah striya ityahur- dharmajna dharmanisvaye ' and Ramayana, I. 27. 3. na hyenamutsahe hantum strisvabhavena raksitam | virya casya gatim capi hanisyamiti me matih || 25. Bhumi-Khanda, 27. 106-107 ....... avaghya stri sada nrpa | (v. 1. bhavet) strinam vadhe mahatpapam drstamasti dvijottamaih | (v. 1. Anss. ed. mahan dosa hyuktah Purvair-mahatmabhih). 26. Ibid., 27, 116. aham nari hyavadhya ca prayascitti bhavisyasi | avadhyam ca striyam prahustiryyagyonigatamapi || 27. Ibid., 42. 39 ff. 28. P. V. Kane, History of Dharmasastra, II, p. 427. 29. A. S. Altekar, Position of women in Hindu Civilization, pp. 31. ff. 30. Bhumi-khanda, 41. 11.

July, 1968] HINDU SOCIETY IN PADMA-PURANA 159 32 khanda, it is known how a woman spent her after-life in misery, being punished at Naraka for her ill behaviour towards her husband. She always took him to task for no fault of his. She did not obey her husband and she used to take all food, prepared by herself without giving even a morsel of it to her husband. Consequently she was born in the womb of a bat, a boar and a cat and underwent severe torture for her brutal treatment towards her husband. This Purana extols the value of conjugal relation and there are statements in praise of sexual purity. The sati or chaste woman always commanded respect from everybody. She has been eulogised in chapter 55 of the Bhumi-khanda. Even if she were a "prosita-bharttrka" (having a husband living away), she would not fall into temptation and would refuse even the lord of heaven if the latter would sue her. 3 The chaste woman, devoted to her husband, possessed such power as enabled her to save her husband from any calamity. She could even prevent the god of death laying his hand on her husband.38 But an unchaste woman had no position in the society. She was looked down upon by everybody. She had to roam about for shelter. She was deprived of 'kula' and 'mana'. She could not receive even alms from anybody. Everyone rebuked her. Even after death she had to undergo terrible suffering.35 Padmavati-Gobhila episode of the Bhumi-khanda points to the fact that the married ladies lying on beds other than those of their husbands are to be regarded as immoral and unchaste. 36 Thereby she loses all achievements of a 'Sati', and cannot make effective any power she might have acquired by virtue of her penance or morality. An unchaste woman was addicted to drinking and was accustomed to enjoy and satisfy her with her Upapati.87 31. Uttara-khanda, 108, 14 ff. 32. Bhumi khanda, ch. 58, sce aleo Patil, op. cit. p. 40. 33. Uttara-khanda, 104. 28b. nanyatha sa bhaved-vadhyah pativratyat suraksitah. 34. Bhumi-khanda, 51. 34-39. 35. Ibid., 52. 16-26. 36. Ibid., 50. 44 ff. 37. Uttara-khanda, ch. 183.

160 puranam - PURANA [Vol. X., No. 2 To an unchaste lady nothing seems to satisfy her. As the cow hankers after fresher paddy, so she also expects the company of new people. She is always eager to go to a new man even if the latter is bereft of beauty, qualities and money. It does not matter to her whether he is a servant, or has no claim to pedigree. She leaves her husband although equipped with all qualifications, prosperity, beauty and amorousness. She even visits menastery (the Math) and tries to corrupt the people coming there. 39 As she is a veritable menace to society, she should be heavily punished. Incidentally it should be noted that the attitude and behaviour of man and woman in that age were reciprocal. As a woman was always looked upon as a beloved object, a permanent repositary of virtue and morality, and even as the goddess of mind, 40 so it was the duty of her male counterpart not to desert her for that would bring about disorder and disruption in society. Hence it has been stated that a man is to be regarded as a candala if he ever forsakes his wife." Once in the country of Campaka, there ruled a very pious king named Vaikhanasa. One night he saw in a dream that his fore-fathers were living in 'naraka'. In the morning, he sought the help of a sage who explained the significance of the dream to him. The sage said that once the 38. Srsti Khanda, 49.10-12. na strinamapriyah kascit priyo vapi na vidyate | gavastrnamivaranye prarthayanti navam navam || pumamsam vittahinam ca virupam gunavarjitam | akulinam ca bhrtyam ca kamini bhajate dhruvam || bhartaram ca gunopetam kulinam ca sundaram ratidaksam ca tyaktva nicam 39 Ibid., 17. 61. mahadhanam | bhajedvadhuh || atra vamah (v. 1. atrastha yah) striyah santi tasamarthe tvam agatab 40. Bhumi-Khanda, 41. 24-25 a. mama pranapriya nityam nityam dharmasya casrayah | nasameti yada bala mama naso bhavediha || iyam me jivika nityam iyam praranasya (?) cesvari | 41. Uttara Khanda, 66. 124 b. candaladadhiko vidvan yah svabharyam parityajet ||

July, 1968] HINDU SOCIETY IN PADMA-PURANA 161 father of the king, knowing full well that his wife at that time was running her monthly course, left her, and went to a village as he was called upon to do some important work there. According to the injunction of the religious texts it was incumbent on the part of the husband to attend his wife during this time, and his fore-fathers were apprehending some evil that might befall their descend which would ultimately cause social disorder. 42 43 Woman in general was courageous but it has been mentioned that they should never be trusted. The dictum 'na stri svatantryam-arhati' was scrupulously followed and we find that the married woman could not observe a vrata (i, e. religious ceremony) without the permission of her husband.45 CASTE SYSTEM A scholar while trying to explain the caste system of the Hindus wrote that 'what distinguishes Hindu Society from others is its independent self-sufficient units called castes, each unit with a definite unalterable social status deriving its sanction from religion'.46 Undoubtedly this gives a true picture of the nature of the caste system. From a very long time the Hindu society has been divided into four castes among which the brahmanas stand pre-eminent. From the time of the Rg-Veda, the brahmanas are considered the highest of the castes. In later Vedic literature There is a number of it is found that they claim to be gods. 48 such claims in the Buddhist Jatakas also. Their status gradually became higher and higher and as Dr. Kane has pointed out,-some 42. Ibid., 41. 35-36. 43. Ibid., 193. 12a, prayah sahasikah striyah 44. Ibid., 193. 14a. strinam naiva tu visvaso'nutanam karayedbudhah | (v. 1. sratah strinam na visvasah karttavyo vidusam varaih ) 45. Ibid., 125. 66 a. stribhirva bhattrvakyena karttavyam dharmavardhanam || 46. P. Thomas, Hindu Religion, Customs and Manners, p. 11. 47. Ibid., p. 11. 48. Keith, Religion and Philosophy of the Veda, pp. 576, 577, 631. 49. R. Fick, Social Organisation in North-East India in Buddha's Time, p. 182.

162 puranam - PURANA [Vol. X., No. 2 of the Dharma-sastras assign to the brahmanas a status superior even to that of the gods.50 Such references are not wanting in the epics also.51 But in the Vayu-p. although the brahmanas have been offered a similar exalted position, it is never found that a brahmana has been given the status of a god or a position even superior to it.52 In this respect our Padma-p. does not follow other puranas so much as it follows the Vayu-p. Here they are neither compared with the gods nor are offered a position higher than that of the gods. But the idea that the brahmanas are superior to other castes has been faithfully followed in the Padma-p. also. Here also it is found that the brahmanas have been awarded a much higher place than others. Hence, when Bhisma was practising penance for Brahma and when instead of Brahma his son Pulastya-a brahmana by caste appeared, Bhisma did not become sad but promptly showed respects to him. The theory of the origin of four principal castes and presence of different qualities (Guna) in them has been referred to here more than once, 54 and thus it points to the greatness of the brahmanas. The power of the brahmanas is said to be limitless.55 A brahmana should always be respected. He should never be killed. Even if a brahmana is about to kill somebody, the latter's relations should not even think of causing harm to the former, i. e. the brahmana.56 Generally the brahmanas followed their own means of livelihood, but sometimes they gave up their own 'vrtti' and adopted the livelihood of the vaisyas-selling 'rasa', 'kambala' and 'carma'.57 Still adherence to one's own duty has been highly 50. Kane, History of Dharma-sastra, Vol. II, p. 135. 51. Ibid., p. 136. 52. Patil, op. cit. p. 125 53. Srsti-khanda, 2. 70-75 54. Ibid., 3.119-123, 4.120 etc. 55. Bhumi-Khanda, 3. 31. putrapautrah samastaistu brahmavisnuharam punah | nasayante na sandeho yadi rusta dvijottamah || ete. 56. Uttara-khanda, 18. 81, 83. 57. Ibid., 115, 1-2

July, 1968] HINDU SOCIETY IN PADMA-PURANA 163 spoken of. The 'Prajapatya-sthana', 'Indra-loka' 'Vayu-loka' and 'Gandharvaloka' have respectively been allotted to the brahmanas and the three other principal castes following their own vrttis.58 But among the brahmanas, the Parvatiyas have been denounced.59 The sudras are very low in the social scale.60 From the Purusasukta of the Rg-Veda we know that the word 'sudra' was not unknown to the Rg-Veda. According to the Pancavimia Brahmana, the business of a 'sudra' is to wash the feet of his master.61 In the Jatakas there are frequent references to the low races by which the Sudras are most probably meant.62 The Dharma-sastras offer a low place to the sudras. There it appears that the principal social duties of a sudra is to serve the three higher castes, especially the brahmanas.63 It has been mentioned in the Mahabharata that the sudras cannot own property.64 In the Vayu-p. also we find them described as a miserable, powerless and servile people.65 In the Padma-p. also the sudras in general were hated. It has been repeatedly remarked that one incurs sin by taking food offered by the sudras. A sudra is prohibited from taking the milk of the cow or goat. If, by chance, he takes cow's milk, he becomes a worm in stool in his next birth. He should not take his food on the middle of a leaf. A brahmana should not have any connection with a sudra. If he is associated in any way he is regarded as 'Vedabahya'. He should never obey a sudra. It has been said that water brought by a brahmana at the command 66 58. Srsti-khanda, 3. 127, 147-148 59. Ibid., 27.67 60. P. Thomas, op. cit., p. 19. 61. Macdonell & Keith, Vedic Index, II. 389. 62. Fick, op. cit., p. 314., 317. 63. P. Thomas, op. cit., p. 19 64. Hopkins, J. A. O. S., 13, XII. 73 65. Patil, op. cit., p. 150 66. Sristi-Khanda, 27. 48. sudrannena tu bhuktena brahmanastu visesatah | mriyate hyudarasthena sa vai preto bhavennarah || 27.50. rato va sudrasevasu sah preto jayate narah | 27. 51 *"sudrapakaratah sada |

164 puranam - PURANA [Vol. X., No. 2 of a sudra should be regarded as wine.67 The kayasthas and karanas (born of vaisya father and sudra mother) are respected much more than the sudras as these two are said to have sprung from the body of Brahma and not from his feet which is the place of origin of the sudras.68 But the caste-system in that period was never a water-tight division. It was relaxed to a great extent. The sudras were allowed to worship Visnu or Siva. 69 Although they were cultivators and lived on cattle-breeding 70 still a pious and devoted sudra would command respects from everybody. Even a 'candala' may be regarded as a brahmana if he strictly sticks to his own mode of living." Even a 'candala' becomes an object of worship if he is pure in heart and bears the marks of sandal-paste on his fore-head 72. RELIGIOUS SECTS (1) SAIVISM 73 74 The idea that Mahadeva i.e. Rudra Siva is one of the supreme gods is an ancient one. Although he is invoked in only three hymns of the Rg veda and is less important than Visnu," in the later period he gained popularity and in Vajasaneyi Samhita, we find many epithets of the God are mentioned. 67. Uttara-khanda, 66. 47-59. 68. Sristi-Khanda, 3. 156. taccharirasamutpannaih kayasthaih karanaih saha | ksetrajnah samavarttanta gavebhyastasya dhimatah || 69. Uttara-khanda, 57. 42 70. Bhumi-khanda, 16. 27, 30 ff. 71. Sristi-Khanda, 47. 193. vrttasthamapi candalam tam deva brahmanam viduh | 72. Brahma-Khanda. 21. 11. urdhvapundu mrda subhram lalate yasya drsyate | candalo'pi visuddhatma pujya eva na samsayah || 73. Keith, Religion and Philosophy of the Veda, pp. 142 ff. The name 74. Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, p. 74. 'his (Rudra's name occurs about 75 times' and p. 37, 'his (Visnu's) name occurs only about 100 times altogether in the Rg-Veda.

July, 1968] HINDU SOCIETY IN PADMA-PURANA 79 165 76 Mahadeva occurs for the first time in that Samhita. The Atharva Veda has a further development on the conception of Rudra and it has been suggested that the curious Vratya hymn of the Atharva Veda points to the cult of Rudra by the Vratyas.". Although neither in the Svetasvatara Upanisad (where Siva has been described as the creator and destroyer of the world) nor in the Grhya-Sutras, the existence of Saiva sect is found, it would not be wise to contradict Sir R.G. Bhandarkar who opines that from the days of Patanjali, the existence of it may be taken for granted.80 In the Mahabharata, the Saivas and the Saivite sects have been mentioned more than once³¹. 81 With the Vayu-P. which has been regarded as one of the oldest Puranas these terms have become popular.83 Taking the above facts into consideration, we find that the Padma-p. does not only include the names of Saiva and Saivites as a full-fledged sect but shows stamps of later Saiva philosophy also. Here we find that Saivism, as has been expounded by Sati, clearly admits the law of karman and rebirth, the law of virtue and vice, the deads of our present life determining the next birth, and the transmigration of soul. Good actions lead to heaven. Intelligence and health are the results of our previous deeds. Fortune favours 75. R. G. Bhandarkar in his Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Systems, (p. 103) Shows how that Samhita displays the character of Rudra in a much more developed form. For the name Mahadeva see Vajasaneyi Samhita, 39. 8. 76. Patil, op. cit., p. 177. 77. Charpentier, Vienna Oriental Journal, 23. 151 ff; 25. 355 ff. Cf. also C. V. N. Ayyar, Origin and Early History of Saivism in South India, p. 17 ff. 78. R. G. Bhandarkar, op. cit., p. 110. 79. V.M. Apte, in his 'Social and Religious Life in the Grhyasutras', only refers to several names of Siva as found in the Grhya Sutras (pp. 234- 235), but does not refer to the aiva-sects any where. 80. R.G. Bhandarkar, op. cit., p. 115 ff. 81. Hopkins, Epic Mythalogy, p. 220. 82. R. G. Bhandarkar, Early History of the Deccan, p, 51. F. E. Pargiter, Purana Text of the Dynasties of the Kali Age, p. 14. V.R.R. Dikshitar Some Aspects of the Vayu-Purana, p. 47. 83. Patil, op. cit., p. 55 ff., 117 ff. 8

166 puranam - PURANA [Vol. X, No. 2 us, misfortune lays disgrace on our life. These are all determined by the eternal law of karman, Siva is here described as the lord of all lords. He holds the begging bowl (kapala) in one hand and sula and danda on the other. He has the skin of tiger and elephant as the lower and upper garment. His body is covered with the dust or ashes. He carries a number of snakes in his body. He, the three-eyed one, always roams in a cremation ground (smasana).84 The Lord is surrounded by a host of bhutas, ganas and other semi-divine beings. He is the cause of origin, preservation and destruction of this universe. He is all pervasive. It is through his grace that Purandara attained heaven, the blissful world. Through constant devotion we acquire merit which makes one gifted with supernatural power. Sometimes the destructive features of Siva appear to be prominent. He lords the universe, is the lord of all free-souls. He being gracious to the devotees, grants coveted objects to them. Complete resignation to the Lord is the only means of attaining him. A description of the attendants of Siva has also been given. They are fierce-looking endowed with thousand and one superhuman characteristics. Surrounded by large snakes and wearing sacred thread and long matted hair, clothed in garments of variegated colour, some of them practise Yoga. The influnece of Agamic Saivism is observable 85 and the female consort of Siva is said to have been worshipped generally by the Sudras.86 Instances of sectarian rivalry are not rare but if any body runs away with the impression that sectarian rivalry is an important feature of the Purana, he is misled. There are innumerable passages which clearly indicate a spirit of tolerance . For instance it has been clearly stated in unambiguous terms that there is no 84. Srsti-khanda, 5. 42-47; 64-65. 85. Cf. Bhumi-khanda, ch. 69. 86. Srsti-Khanda, 40. 76a. tvam bhuriti visam mata sudrah saiveti pujita |

July, 1968] HINDU SOCIETY IN PADMA-PURANA 167 difference between Visnu and Siva.87 The idea of complete identification among Brahma, Visnu and Mahesvara has been 87. Bnumi-Khanda, 71. 18-21. saivam ca vaisnavam lokamekarupam narottama | dvayoscapyantaram nasti ekarupam mahatmanoh || sivaya visnurupaya visnave sivarupine | sivasya hrdaye visnurvisnosca hrdaye sivah || ekamurtistrayo deva brahmavisnumahesvarah | trayanamantaram nasti gunabhedah prakirtitah || sivabhakto'si rajendra tatha bhagavato'si ca | tena devah prasannaste brahmavisnumahesvarah || Ibid., 83. 33 krsnabhakto'si rajendra mamapi supriyo bhavan | Ibid., 35-36 antaram nasti rajendra mama visnorna samsayah | yo'sau visnuh svarupena sa ca rudro na indro yah sa ca vai visnurjanihi tvam Ibid., 39 samsayah || naresvara | ubhayorantaram nasti tasmadevam vadamyaham || yuvayorantaram nasti eka murtistridha'bhavat || Uttara-Khanda, 39, 27 visnuh sivah sivo visnurekamurtidvidha sthita | tasmat sarvaprakarena naiva nindam prakarayet || Ibid., 61. 9b-11a vaisnavah puruso bhutva sivanindam na vindedvaisnavam lokam sa yati saivah pasupato bhutva visnornindam raurave pacyate ghore Ibid., 83, 28b-30 karoti yah | narakam dhruvam | karoti cet || yavadindrascaturdasa | yatha visnustatha sarve nantaram varttate kvacit || evam jnatva tu bho devi hyabhayormurtikalpanam | sivapujamakurvano visnunindasu tatparah || raurave narake caiva vasate natra samsayah |

168 puranam - PURANA [Vol. X, No. 2 repeatedly advocated. The above facts will certainly lead one to conclude that religious temper was by no means narrow or sectarian. Different religions and sects were allowed to be patronised. But gradually a change took place. The spirit of tolerance began to disappear slowly yielding place to unhealthy sectarian rivalry. A struggle for survival became prominent in the attitude of those sectarian propagandists. Hinduism began to lose much of its glory in the arid desert of sectarian rivalries. Healthy spirit of acquiring superiority degenarated into undesirable attempts at belittling others, and the idea of discovering 'unity in diversity' became a talk of yesterday. (ii) VAISNAVISM Vaisnavism has a glorious history. It is distinguished by a steady and unbroken development with very rare spells of decadence. On the other hand, beginning from the Rg Vedic period down to the Purana days it has steadily advanced getting fresh momentum now and then. We are conversant with Visnu's personality in the Rg veda.89 Although Narayana of the Satapatha Brahmana cannot be connected with Visnu, 90 scholars are of opinon that towards the end of the Brahmana period 'the conception of Narayana as the Supreme Being had been evolved.91 88. Bhumi-Khanda, 88. 39-40 trayanamapi devanamantaram nasti brahma samacito yena samkaram va tenahamarcito nityam natra karya etau mamabhinnatarau nityam capi sobhane | varanane || vicarana || trirupavan | sraham devi hrsikesah krpaya tava cagatah || Uttara-Khanda, 83, 30 sraham visnuraham rudro hyaham brahma pitamahah | sarvabhutesu satatam vasami ca punah It is needless to multiply exampels. 89. Bhandarkar, Vaisnavism etc.. p. 33. 97: 11 90. H.C. Raychaudhuri, Early History of the Vaisnava Sect. p. 16. 91. Patil, op. cit., p. 188.

July, 1968] HINDU SOCIETY IN PADMA-PURANA 169 We find in the Taittiriya Aranyaka that there is a direct relationship between the names Narayana and Visnu." So far as the archaeological, epigrhphic and numismatic materials are concerned, the Besnagar Garuda pillar inscription of the Greek emperor Heliodoros (c. 2nd century B. C.),93 Ghosundi inscription in the Citorgad district of Rajputana,94 a stone image of Balarama preserved in the Lucknow Provincial Museum,95 the tribal coin of Almora, 96 some of the Kanauj coins containing the name Visnu deva and many others give direct evidence to the effect that even in the early period the worship of Vasudeva had gathered a large following. The above fact is attested by the epics as well.98 Although we are not sure whether the Vayu-p. knew the Vyuha doctrine of the pancaratra school, still according to Patil 'The Vayu information no doubt testifies to the worship of Vasudeva-krsna in whose connection the story of the incarnations of Visnu is narrated in the Purana. 100 99 As for the Padma-p. it will not hold good to say that it is a Vaisnava-purana. It has been shown how different sects and sectaries were responsible for the growth and present development 92. Raychaudhuri, op. cit., p. 16. 93. Luders, Inscription No. 669 (Epigraphia Indica, Vol. X. Appendix). Vogel. Archaeological Survey of India. (Annual Report), 1908-9, pp. 126-129 Archaeological Survey Report, 1912-13, p. 82 ff. See also, K.G. Goswami, Vaisnavism, Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. XXX, p. 358 ff. That Besnagar i.e. Vidisa occupied a place of importance for Vaisnavism is proved by another inscription of that period (Archaeological Survey of India-Annual Report 1913-14.) p. 190 ff. 94. Luders, Inscription No. 6 (Epigraphia Indica, Vol. X. Appendix) Indian Antiquary, 1932, 203 ff. Cf. R. P. Chanda, Archaeology and Vaisnava Tradition, Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, V. p. 151 ff. 95. V. S. Agarwala, A short guide book to the Archaeological Seetion of the Provincial Museum Lucknow (1940) Plate I, p. 14. 96. Allen, Catalogue of Coins of Ancient India, p. LXXX. p. 120. 97. Allen, Ibid., p. XCIII (p. 147). 98. Bhandarkar, op. cit., p. 4 ff. 99. Cf. F.O. Schroder, Introduction to the Pancaratra System. 100. Patil, op. cit., p. 189.

170 puranam - PURANA [Vol. X., No. 2 of this Purana. In fact we have tried to prove that it was the Brahma-sect who drew the first blood in presenting this purana. Contribution of the Vaisnavas, however, to the present growth and shape of the Padma-p. can never be questioned and even to-day it stands pre-eminent among other Vaisnava works. It is looked upon as the most sacred scripture among a class of Vaisnavas and we have been informed that in Orissa and some parts of Andhra, this Purana is read in the Visnu-temples at regular intervals. It has been mentioned by the Padmap. itself, that Vaisnava worshipping his sacred book (the name of the book is not given), is blessed with the result of the worship of Kamalapati.101 References to image-worship of Visnu are also not wanting." These images were generally made of gold, silver, copper, stone or clay." A number of stories glorifying Visnu and Vaisnava 101. Bhumi - Khanda, 67. 35 102 devasthane hi nityam vai vaisnavam tasmin prapujite vipra pujitah pustakam nrpa | kamalapatih || 102. Uttara-Khanda, 38. 7 sauvarna karayeddevam masasamjnabhidhanakam | 66.11 66. 16 sradhimase tu patite tada caisa vidhikramah | sthapayet pratimam visnoh sankhacakragadadharam || 3 evam tam pratimam visnoh sthapayitva tu narada | 83, 10. 11 170.55 gopalanamnim murti ca ye'rcayanti dvijah sada | dhatujam mrnmayim caiva caturhastam susobhitam || krtva pasanajam murti krsnakhyam rupasundaram | haimim ca tatra manmurti sthapya laksmya samanvitam | 103. Ibid., 83. 21-24 tasyam murti visesena kartavyani pramanatah || caturbhujam dvinetram ca sankhacakragadadharam | pitavasah paridhanam sobhamanam gariyasim || vanamalam dadhanam tam lasadvaiduryakundalam | kaustubhodbhasitam sada || va tamrajam catha paittalim | karayet paraya bhaktya vaisnavaidvijasattamaih || mukutena samayuktam sauvarni catha raupyam

HINDU SOCIETY IN PADMA-PURANA 104 171 July, 1968] mahatmya have been introduced." But unfortunately these episodes have little value so far as the evolution of Visnu worship is concerned. What is interesting to note is that it holds emphatically that there exists no difference between Visnu and Vaisnava.105 The idea the Lord resides in the devotee, the devotee is superior to the Lord (bhakta-jana-vaso bhagavan, bhagavato'pi gariyan bhaktah') is however not foreign to the upholders of Bhakti cult. 106 But afterwards when the latter part of the Padma-p. was compiled, the sectarian motive became prominent, and feelings and dealings between the different important sects grew bitter and bitter. The Vaisnavas who were mainly instrumental in giving the final shape to the Padma-p. became antagonistic to the sects other than their own, adopted an attitude of hostility towards the Saivas in particular and openly attempted to denounce and decry Saivism. This unhealthy temperament of the Vaisnavas resulted in the formulation of some of the passages where Siva and Saivism were ridiculed, disparaged and depreciated. 107 104. Cf. Bhumi-khanda. 67. Brahma-khanda. 15. Uttara-khanda 26. 30. 36. 66. 170. 257. 262. 263. 282 etc. A major portion of the Patalakhanda speak highly of Krsna (See our analysis af the Devanagari recension of the Patala-Khanda). 5. Uttara-Khanda, 30. 15b-17 savai visnusamo jneyo natra karya vicarana || vaisnavo brahmano yastu visnudhyanesu tatparah | nantaram tasya vai jneyam sa vai visnurbhavediha | sankhacakradharo vipro vedadhyayanatatparah || savai narayana iti vede caivam tu pathyate || Ibid., 30.20a visnurupo yato vipro vaisnavah sa iha smrtah etc. etc. 106. J. N. Farquhar, Religious Literature of India. p. 220 ff. 107. The Vaisnavas were forbidden from worshipping any other deity than their own. avaisnavanam sambhasa-vandanadivivarjanam | ananyadevatanam ca smaranam pujanam tatha || evamadya hi niyamah prapannasya prakirtitah | ityadi gunayuktaya vaktavyo ityadi-gunayuktaya mantra uttamah ||

172 puranam - PURANA [Vol. X., No. 2 (iii) BRAHMAISM fern It has already been shown how the Padma-p. was originally a contribution of the Brahmaites. Brahma-worship is although now limited to some particular area of India, it would be an error Uttara-Khanda, 251. 36-37. Ibid., 282.55-56 brahmanyasca saranyasva | tvameva purusottamah | brahmananam tvameveso nanyah pujyah ye'rcayanti surananyamstvam vina te pasandatvamapannah surah kvacit || purusottama | sarvalokavigarhitah || It has been openly stated that a devoted worshipper of Rudra is a Pasandin and a Vaisnava should avoid his company. Ibid., 282.35 rudrabhaktasca ye loke bhasmalingasthidharinah | te pasandatvamapanna vedabahya bhavantu vai || Ibid., 67 tasmattvameva vipranam pujyo nanyo'sti kascana | mohadyah pujayedanyan sa pasandi bhavisyati || bhavisyati | Ibid., 92b mohadyah pujayedanyam sa pasandi Ibid., 57b nanyah kascit suranam ca pujaniyah kadacana | Ibid., 61 tatha | puspam jalam itaresam tu devanamannam puspam asprsyam tu bhavet sarva nirmalyam suraya samam || Ibid., 96b-100a tasmadvisnoh prasado vai sevitavyo dvijanmanam || itaresam tu devanam nirmalyam garhitam bhavet | sakrdeva hi yo'snati brahmano jnanadurlabhah || nirmalyam samkaradinam sa candalo bhaveddhruvam | kalpakotisahasrani pacyate narakagnina || nirmalyam bho dvijasrestha rudradinam divaukasam | raksoyaksa pisacanam madyamamsasamam smrtam || tadbrahmanairna bhoktavyam devanam bhunjitam havih | (v. 1. 'devanam-arpitam' for 'devanam bhunjitam' in the last line).

July, 1968] HINDU SOCIETY IN PADMA-PURANA 111 108 173 to suppose that public homage was never paid to him." The Mahabharata bears ample evidence in this respect. 109 According to the early Buddhist works, Brahma was a popular god in Northern India. 110 That Brahma-worship was widely prevalent is also proved by a number of works which deal along with others, profusely with the rules and regulations for the construction and installation of Brahma's image. Elaborate descriptions of the images of Brama are found in almost all the works of authority.11% According to some texts on architecture the niche on the northern wall of the central shrine of the temple of Visnu or Siva should contain an image of Brahma and must receive daily worship. 113 A modern writer has tried to prove the existence of the cult of Brahma" from different types of images of Brahma found in the different parts of India such as Gujarat, Rajasthan and Bihar. Their varieties and numbers easily point to the wide spread of Brahma-worship at least in those parts of India.116 It is to be noted that the largest number of Brahma-images have thus for been found in Gujrat. Historical Literatures of Assam also connect the earliest kings of Assam with Brahma, thereby pointing to the prevalence of Brahma-worship in the Eastern territory of India. It is worthy of notice in this context that Brahma-worship was not confined to the borders of India but extended far beyond and we find a scholar writing that 'the area that ranks next in this respect is that of Combodia in the Republic 108. H.H. Wilson, Hindu Religions, p. 5. 109. Mahabharata, III, 84. 103; IV. 13. 14 etc. etc. 110. J. N. Banerjee, Development of Hindu Iconography, 84-85. 116 111. Cf. Rupamandana, Vaikhanasa-agama, Bharadvaja-samhita (i.e. Naradiya pancaratra), Visnu-p., Silparatna etc. 112. T. A. Gopinath Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography Vol. II. pt. II., pp. 501 ft. 113. Ibid., p. 502 11. B.G. Gohlale, 'Some Obscure Cults'. J. B. Br. R.A.S. (New Series), Vol. 27. 1952, pt. II, p. 175. 115. Ancient India, (Bulletin of the Archaeological Survey of India) No. 6, January, 1950, pp. 35-36. 116. S. K. Bhuyan, Assamese Historical Literature, I. H. Q. Vol. V, p. 459. 9

174 puranam - PURANA [Vol. X., No. 2 of Vietnam (Indo China) "117 E.B. Havell in his Ideals of Indian Art remarks 118 'the finest image of Brahma now extant is probably that which is now preserved in the Ethnological Museum, Leyden'. Thus it is seen that Brahma-worship and Brahma-sects were not uncommon in India and abroad. Those portions of the Padma-p. which have been composed earlier still bear the marks of Brahma-worship. There Brahma has been made superior, 119 recognised as the creator of the four castes 120 and all the forms of Mahadeva. 121 It has been said how on account of the boon of Brahma the span of the life of Markandeya was prolonged. Markandeya thereby began to worship Brahma in Puskara.122 The means of acquiring the state of Brahma have been narrated.19 Moreover, the festival of marriage ceremony of Brahma and Savitri which has been described in detail 124 points to the wide popularity of the Brahma-worshippers. But as it has been noted above the Padma-p. in its present form offers a little trace of Brahmaism for more than one reason. Hence only a few chapters of the Srsti-khanda only, (which have been composed earlier) are conversant with Brahma-worship and Brahma-sects. Gradual influence of Saivism and Vaisnavism gave a death blow to the Brahmaism and Brahma-sects which began to disappear slowly. (iv) THE CULT OF THE SUN-GOD In Rg veda we find that the sun was worshipped in several forms 125 and adoration of the Sun-god was a special feature of the 117. Amrit Pandya, Cult of Brahma in Gujrat, Charutar Vidyamandal, Institute of Archaology, 1950, p. 8. 118. E. B. Havell, The Ideals of Indian Art, p. 66. 119. Srsti khanda, 17. 82. pujayanti ca brahmanam. 120. Ibid., 3. 123 sarvametad brahma cakara ha | yajnanispattaye caturvarnyam mahabhaga yajnasadhanamuttamam || 121. Ibid., 3. 193-194. 122. Ibid., 28. 19-31. 123. Ibid., 15. 92-97. 124. Ibid., 16. 127 ff. 125. Farquhar, Religious Literature of India, p. 151.

HINDU SOCIETY IN PADMA-PURANA 127 175 July, 1968] Brahmanas.126 According to the Chandogya upanisad, Krsna has been made a disciple of a priest of the Sun." As early as the first century A. D., Mittra (the Persian Sun-god which corresponds with Mihira in Sanskrit) was introduced in India. This can be inferred from its name and effigy which appear on coins.128 From the inscriptions of the Gupta period we come to know the Varaha-mihira's prevalence of sun-worship 129 in that age. 130 reference to the images and temples of the Sun 131 is a further proof in this respect. In the drama Prabodha-candrodaya, the Saura-sects have an honourable position. Konarak temple of Orissa and Mudhera temple of Gujarat and a few others show the popularity of the Sun-god. Some portions of the Markandeyap., Brahma-p., Bhavisya-p., Skanda-p., Varaha-p., Matsya-p., Agni-p., Garuda-p., Visnudharmottara-p., Bhavisyottara-p., and Kalika-p." and independent books like Surya-Sataka, Saura-samhita, Sauraupapurana and Samba-upapurana and the fact that many kings were devotees of Surya,183 directly or indirectly prove the existence of the Saura-sects. Gangadhara's Govindapur plate is evidently a Saura document.134 Unlike the Vayu-p. which merely refers to the adoration of the Sun-god, and does not suggest an existence of a cult in honour of that deity, 15 the evidences of the Padma-p. not only point to the popularity and glorification of the worship of the Sun-god but definitely suggests an existence of the Saura-sects which have been mentioned more than once. In one place Hari and Aditya 136 126. R.G. Bhandarkar, Selected Works, Vol. IV, p. 216. 127. Chandogya upanisad, III. 17. 6. 128. R.P. Chanda, Indo-Aryan Races, p. 225. 129. R. D. Banerjee, Age of the Imperial Guptas, p. 125 ff. 130. R.N. Saletore, Life in Gupta age, p. 509 ff. 131. Bhandarkar, Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Systems, p. 153 132. R.C. Hazra, Studies in the Upapuranas, Vol. I, p. 29. 133. R.P. Chanda, op. cit. pp., 145, 161. See also R. C. Hazra, op. cit., pp. 29-108. 134. Ep. Ind. Vol. II, p. 338. 135. Patil, op. cit., p. 192. 136. Sristi-Khanda, 57. 105 sa saivo vaisnavah sakto ganapatyo'tha saurakah | Ibid., Ch. 76; Uttara-Khanda, 39. 61, 90. 63 etc.

176 puranam PURANA 137 They are blessed with a Brahmana recites a [Vol. X., No. 2 (Surya) have been accorded the same status of importance.¹ The sacred place Picumandarka had been associated with the glorifications of Aditya. One who goes there and worships the Sun-god receives the desired object of his heart. Those who utter the twelve names of that God, i. e. Aditya, Bhaskara, Bhanu, Ravi, Visvaprakasa, Tiksnamsu, Martanda, Surya, Prabhakara, Vibhavasu, Sahasraksa and Pusan are virtuous and throughout their lives they remain so. wealth, children, and grandchildren. If single name of the Sun-god and worships Him, he gets immense wealth, and shines with the Vedic lores for seven consecutive births. A Ksattriya doing so begets an empire; a Vaisya receives wealth; and devotion and attachment are obtained by a Sudra. 138 It has been mentioned that through the worship of the Sun, one But towards the end of the 14th or may attain Visnu-loka. 189 15th century, the popularity of the Sun-god waned under the growing influence of Saivism and Vaisnavism and it failed to recover itself from oblivion afterwards. (v) THE SECT OF GANAPATYAS Ganapati, Ganesvara or Vinayaka has once been identified 140 According to the with Rudra in the Atharvasiras-Upanisad. " Mahabharata, if one glorifies Ganapati, he is purged of all sins.¹ An account of Vinayakas has been given in the Manavagrhyagutgia. From Yajnavalkya Smrti 143 and inscriptional records, Sir R. G. Bhandarkar comes to the conclusion, 'so that between the end of the fifth and the end of the eighth century the Ganapati cult must have come into practice'. 145 On and from that period 142 137. Uttara-Khanda, 32. 24a- sradityasahito yatra pujyate bhagavan harih | 138. Ibid., ch. 151 139. Ibid., ch. 90. 55-62. 140. Bhandarkar, op. cit., p. 147 141. Mhabharata, XIII. 150. 25-26 142. Manavagrhyasutra, 2, 14. 143. Yajnavalkyasmrti, I. 271 ff. 144. Ep. Ind., Vol. IX. pp. 277 ff. 145. Bhandarkar, op. cit., p. 148.

July, 1968] HINDU SOCIETY IN PADMA-PURANA 177 this sect has left no stone unturned to propagate their views through proper channel. They wrote a number of works which are purely of sectarian nature. If the opening sloka of the Malatimadhava cannot claim to be their contribution, the Ganapati Upanisad which forms a part of the Atharvasiras-upanisad, 146 Ganesa-samhita, 147 Ganesa-p.148 and the Mudgala-p. 149 belong most probably to this sect. The Padma-p. contains references to the worship of Ganapati and the Ganapatya sect.150 He is to be worshipped for the removal of all obstacles.151 He is to be worshipped first among all the gods.152 It has been observed that once Sarasvati took the gods to task as they did not worship Ganapati (i. e. GanaA long list of the dhyaksa) at the beginning of their sacrifice. 153 sacred places of this sect and glorifications of those in highly eulogistic terms has been provided with. All these probably tend to prove the very effective part played by the Ganapatyas in the formation and constitution of the present Padma-p. (vi) OTHER SYSTEMS 151 References to Sakti-worship also are not wanting in the Padma-p. There are passages in the Bhumi and Uttara-khanda 146. Kennedy, Hindu Mythology, p. 493 147. Schrader, Introduction to the Pancaratra and the Ahirbudhnya Samhita, p. 7 148. See Stevenson's article in the Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. VII, p. 319 149. Farquhar, op. cit.. p. 276 150. Uttara-khanda I. 12b. 39.61. Srsti-khanda, chs. 61-63 151. Sristi-Khanda, 46. 66a ganesam pujayedyastu vighnastasya na jayate | 152. Ibid., 61. 4a ganesam pujayedagre tvavighnartham pareha ca | for similar expression see Ibid., 17b, 20a etc. 153. Uttara-Khanda 113, 21. nacito hi ganadhyakso yajnadau yat surottamah | tasmadvighnam 154. Ibid., 133, 24-37. samutpannam matkrodhajamidam khalu ||

178 puranam - PURANA 155 [Vol. X., No. 2 which bear evidence on the existence of Sakti-worship." But all these references hardly suggest existence of a cult in honour of that deity. Although Brahmi, Mahesvari, Kaumari, Vaisnavi, Varahi and Mahendri¹56 have been delineated as the different aspects of Sakti still it should be concluded that all these merely allude to the worship of those goddesses and nothing more. Likewise reference to the Yoginis in one place only 157 would hardly enable us to opine that worship of the Sakti-cult was in existence in a full fledged manner. There is an interesting and curious reference to the worship any of of Papa which has seldom been invoked or referred to in the Puranas. The following lines will depict a true picture of the iconographic features and the procedure of the worship of Papa. pujayisyanti te nityam svagrhe yoginiganam || papasya pratima karya raudravastradibhisana | khadgahasta viniskranta lohadamstra karalini || tilaprasthopari sthapya raktapuspakrtapida sampujya paraya bhaktaya imamuccarayenmantram yadanyajanmani krtamiha krsnavastrabhivestita | jvalatkancanakundala || grhitakusumanjalih || dharmarajasya namabhih | janmani va punah | papam prasamamayatu tava padaprasadatah || evam sampujya vidhivat pratimam tanca kancanim | 158 This obscure cult cannot be studied until and unless fresh materials regarding its worship are available." 155. Bhumi khanda, 62. 37-56. Uttarakhanda, 106. 23-26. Ibid., 182.27-29. 156. Ibid., 19.116. 157. Ibid., 19. 121 158. Ibid., 125. 70-74a. 159. For a detailed study see our article 'Sin as Personified in Early Sanskrit Texts', Our Heritage.