The Shorter Kurma-Vibhaga Text of the Puranas

The Shorter Kurma-Vibhaga Text of the Puranas [puranesu samksiptaka mamvibhagagranyah] / By Dr. C. A. Lewis; Department of Classics, New Castle University, New South Wales, Australia / 84-97

[ puranesu pranyesu ca granthesu bharatavarsiya bhugolavarnanaprasange bharata- varsasya kurmarupena kalpana - bharatavarsasya vibhinna pradesanamavasthitih kumamsyasya vibhinnangesu nirdista vartate | srayam kurmastu praksira vartate | tasya madhyabhage madhyadesasyavasthitih, agrimadaksigapade purvadaksinadesasya, daksinaparsve daksinadesasya, pascaddaksinapade daksinapascimadesasya, puccha- bhage pascimadesasya, pascadvamapade pascimottaradesasya vamaparsve uttara- desasya agrimavamapade purvottaradesasya ca avasthitih varnita vartate | kurma- vibhagavagamnam dvividham vartate - laghuvibhagah brhadvibhagasca | laghuvibhagah atharvaparisiste, garudapurane, visnudharmottarapura copalabhyate | vrhad- vibhagastu brhatsamhitayam markandeyapurane parasaratantre copalabhyate | atra laghuvibhagasyaiva vivecanam krtam | atharvaparisistasya varnanam puranaih saha kincid vaibhinyam bhajate | asmin karmavibhagavagamne drsyate yat daksina- desiyesu janapadesu vindhyavasinameva varnanamasti | atah tasmin kale vindhyat param vartamananam desanam paricaya nasidaryanamiti matam lekhakamahodayasya vartate | atra kurmavibhage nirdistanam janapadanam jatinam ca pramanapurassaram pravasthitih gralocita, etatprakaranatmakasya puranamsasya pathavisaye'pi vimarsah krto vartate | ] The conception of Bharatavarsa as a tortoise, in which the various countries are said to rest on specific parts of its body, is a well-known theme of ancient Indian geography. Each of the different parts of the animal, whose head faced towards the Bay of Bengal, and whose centre comprised Madhyadesa, represented a different direction of which there were nine altogether. These may be listed as follows: 1. The middle = Madhyadesa. 2. The head = East. 3. The right forefoot = South-East. 4. The right side = South.

Jan, 1967] SHORTER KURMA-VIBHAGA TEXTS OF PURANAS 85 5. The right hind foot = South-West. 6. The tail - West. 7. The left hind foot = North-West. 8. The left side=North. 9. The left forefoot = North-East. The Kurma-vibhaga texts occur in two types of list, the longer and the shorter; the former are to be found in the Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira, the Markandeya-purana and the Parasaratantra, while the latter occur in the Parisista to the Atharvaveda, the Garuda-purana, and the Visnudharmottarapurana. In the present article it is proposed only to deal with the shorter Kurma-vibbaga texts. Though the Parisista texts follows the same framework as the shorter puranic lists, there is clearly no connection between the two. Moreover its Madhyadesa is placed somewhat further to the south than is the case of the puranic texts and hence corresponds much more closely to the true geographical centre of India. Again while the Parisista extends its Madhyadesa considerably eastwards to include Kasi, Kosala, Mithila etc., the puranic texts specifically exclude them from Madhyadesa by making them parts of its eastern division. The most interesting aspect of the shorter puranic texts, with which this article will now exclusively deal, is the fact that they mention as "southern" tribes, peoples who actually lived in the Vindhyas. Hence the inference would be that the conception of tortoise geography originated at a time when the Aryans had little or no acquaintance with the far south of India. To them the Vindhyas represented the southernmost region of which they had any detailed knowledge and so their southern list is really a Vindhya list. If one accepts this theory, then the tortoise shape does not seem as absurd as it is generally thought. If the Vindhyas represented the southernmost point of knowledge the Aryans had of Bharatavarsa, then the whole area north of them may be perhaps roughly compared to the shape of a tortoise. Let us now proceed to a detailed analysis of these texts. That of the Garuda-purana will be employed, while the variants of the Visnudharmottara will be added. Any textual difficulty

86 puranam - PURANA [Vo, IX., No. 1 that might arise, will be discussed, and then the peoples mentioned in the lists briefly identified to prove the correctness of their location within the region. Pancalah Kuravo Matsya Yaud heyah sa Pataccarah | Kuntayah surasenas ca madhyadesajanah smrtah // The Vdh. P. has exactly the same text except due to a copyist's error it has Vataccarah for Pataccarah. This text is interesting in that the Yaudheyas, Pataccaras, and Kuntis are not mentioned in the longer Kurma-vibhaga text as peoples of Madhyadesa, though the Yaudheyas are mentioned as a northern people by the latter (BS. XIV. 28; Mark. P. 58, 47). The interesting hypothesis raised by this change of location will be discussed below where their identification with modern localities will be established to confirm their location in Madhyadesa. Pancala. Kuru. Matsya. This was divided into two divisions by the Bhagirathi (Ganges). The capital of north Pancala was Ahichattra (mod. Ramnagar) and of south Pancala Kampilya (mod. Kampil). Its territory corresponded to mod. Farukhabad district. Ancient Kuruksetra, the home of Brahmanical civilisation. Situated between the Sarasvati on the north and the Drsadvati on the south, it accordingly corresponds to modern Thaneswar. Modern Jaipur. Capital Vairatanagara (mod. Bairat, 100 miles S-W of Delhi and 40 miles N. of Jaipur). Yaudheya. The inclusion of this tribe in Madhyadesa is most interesting, as the longer Kurma-vibhaga texts place them in the northern region. The Puranas do not include them in their Bhuvanakosa texts. According to numismatic evidence a mint of their coins inscribed "Yaudheyanam Bahudhanyake" and dated to the second century B. C. has been found near Rohitaka (mod. Rohtak). (I. H. Q. XXVII (1951). p. 197 ff). Bahudhanyaka may therefore be identified with the Hariana district of the Punjab. Their

Jan., 1967 SHORTER KURMA-VIBHAGA TEXTS OF PURANAS 87 descendants may be traced in the modern Johiya Rajputs on the banks of the Sutlej. Pataccara. They have also been mentioned as a tribe of Madhyadesa by the Bhuvanakosa texts of the Puranas. Dey (Geog. Dict. p. 150) identifies it with a portion of Banda district, but Agrawala's suggestion (India as known to Panini, p. 62) that it should be equated with modern Pataudi seems far more likely in view of its association in the present text with the Yaudheyas. According to the Mahabharata (3.292.25) they are to be located on the bank of a small river called the Asvanadi or Asvarathanadi, which flows into the Carmanvati (mod. Chambal). This position is confirmed by the account of Sahadeva's digvijaya (M.B. 2. 28. 6), in which it is stated that Sahadeva overcame the Kuntibhojas before reaching the banks of the Carmanvati. Kunti, Surasena. Capital Mathura, mod. Maholi, five miles SW of modern Mathura. V sadhvajajanah padmah sutamagadhacedayah | Kasayas ca videhas ca purvasyam Kosalas tatha || The Vdh. P. has panna for padma; suhma for suta, and anjana for jana. A comparative study of the longer Kurmavibhaga texts show the correct readings to be Anjana, Padma, and Suhma. Kirfel (Bharatavarsha, p. 24), who does not appear to notice the connection between the shorter and longer texts, wrongly retains jana for Anjana. As a result of the comparison of the two lists, the text may accordingly be restored as follows: Vrsadhvajanjanah padmah suhmamagadhacedayah | Kasayas ca videhas ca purvasyam kosalas tatha || It only remains now to identify these tribes and confirm their location in Purvadesa. Anjana. A mountain of the same name is mentioned in the ganapatha to Panini (V. 3. 117). Both Dey (Geog. Dict. p. 8) and Law (Geog. Dict. p. 65) identify it

88 puranam- PURANA [Val. IX., No. 1 with the Suleiman range in the Punjab, but this identification cannot be valid in the present instance. Vrsadhvaja. I have been unable to trace any identification for this name and would be grateful for any suggestion which may be proposed. Padma. Suhma. Magadha. Cedi. Kasi. Videha. Kosala Dey (Geog. Dict. p. 123) mentions a Padmagiri, which he equates with Sravana Belgola, a town in Hassan district, Mysore. This cannot possibly be the same as the Padma of the present texts for its location is too far south. The Bhavisyapurana (Indian Culture. v. 8 (1941) p. 57) mentions a river Padma as one of the boundaries of Gauda, and with this the Padmas may be connected. Mod. Hooghly, Howrah and Burdwan districts of Bengal, as well as parts of Midnapur. Patna and Gaya districts. Capitals Girivraja (Rajgir) and later Patliputra (Patna). The longer Kurma-vibhaga locates them in the south-east. Its capital (Suktimati) on the river of the same name (mod. Ken. MB.3.23.47; 1.57.32) may be located near Banda. It roughly comprised the modern Bundelkhand region S-E of the Jumna from its junction with the Chambal (I.H.Q.27 (1951) p. 250). Modern Benares. Modern Tirhut district with its capital Mithila at Janakpur in Nepal. Evidently Uttara-Kosala, whose capital was Sravasti (modern Sahet-Mahet in Oudh). Kalinga-vanga-pundranga vidarbha mulkas tatha | Vindhyantanilayah proktah purvadaksinatah... || The Vdh. P. has an identical text, and the tribes are so well-known in Indian geographical literature as scarcely to merit identification. The Angas,

1967) SBC Jan., 1967 SHORTER KURMA-VIBHAGA TEXTS OF PURANAS 89 Kalinga. Vanga Pundra. Anga. Mulaka. Vangas and Kalingas are frequently associated together in the Mahabharata, a point that indicates their close geographical and ethnic association in the minds of the Aryans. Modern Orissa. One of the most important tribes in eastern India, as is shown by the fact that their name came to denote the whole province of Bengal. In epic and puranic texts they occupied the eastern section of the province towards the Ganges delta. Pargiter (J.A.S.B. 1897 p. 85) located them in the districts of Murshidabad, Nadia, Jessore, and parts of Rajshahi and Faridpur. Modern Dinajpur, Rungpur and Bogra districts. Its capital, Pundravardhana, is identified by Cunningham (Ancient Geog. of India (1871 ed.) p. 480) with modern Mahasthana, 7 miles north of Bogra. Modern Bhagalpur district extending northwards to the Kosi river. Capital Campa. Vaidarbha. Modern Berar. Capitals Kundina (mod. Kundinyapura on the Wardha in Amraoti district) and later Bhojakata (mod. Bhojapura, 6 miles S-E of Bhilsa). In the Vayupurana (88.177-8) this tribe is closely associated with the well-known Asmakas. The present text however is very interesting as it sharply distinguishes between the two, locating the Mulakas in the south-east and the Asmakas in the south. According to Buddhist tradition the Godavari formed the boundary between them (Law, Geography of early Buddhism p. 21). Pulindasmaka-jimuta-navarastranivasinah / Karnata-kamboja-ghata daksinapathavasinah // The Vdh. P. in place of Karnata-kamboja-ghata reads Karnata ka bhoja kata, which is clearly the correct text as 12 1

90 puranam - PURANA [V. IX., No. 1 Kamboja is well known as the name of a northern tribe and would be completely out of place here. This passage presents a most interesting example of how textual corruption can occur. The final ka suffix of Karnataka has somehow been transferred to being a prefix of the following name which becomes Kabhoja and at once suggests the well known Kambojas. The final part of the word Kata is changed to Ghata and is made the name of a "separate" people. Of the names enumerated only one, Karnata, is included in the same division by the longer Kurma vibhaga texts. None of the other names are even mentioned, though with the exception of the Jimutas all are well known. The reason for their omission lies perhaps in the fact that in the early period of tortoise geography they had a special importance as "frontier" tribes; when however the Aryan knowledge of south India increased, they may have lost their significance and so been dropped from the list. It remains now to identify these tribes and confirm their location in Daksinapatha. Pulinda. Asmaka. Jimuta. The antiquity of this tribe is attested by their mention in the Aitareya-brahmana (VII.18.2), which locates them in the Vindhyas along with the Sabaras and Andhras. According to Law (Geog. Dict. of India. p. 184), their capital, Pulindanagar is to be located near Bhilsa. Ptolemy (VII.1.64) refers to them as Polindoi Agriophagoi. Located by the Suttanipata (P.T.S. p. 190) on the bank of the Godavari immediately south of Patitthana (Skt. Pratisthana, mod. Paithan). This tribe, so far as I am aware, has not been identified. Navarastra. This tribe is definitely located near the bank of the Chambal by the digvijaya of Sahadeva in the Mahabharata (MB. 2.28.6). Dey's identification of it with the Neogramma of Ptolemy (VII. 1.61) is inaccurate as the later city is situated on the Indus (mod. Naushari).

Jan., 1967] SHORTER KURMA-VIBHAGA TEXTS OF PURANAS 91 Karnataka. Modern Kanarese speaking area centred around Mysore. Bhojakata. According to the puranic tradition the Bhojas were a branch of Yadavas who founded the kingdom of Vidarbha. Bhojakata is mentioned in the Chammak copperplate inscription of Pravarasena III and may thus be regarded as including the Elichpur district of Berar and the area of Chammak four miles to its south-west. It has also been identified with Bhatkuli in Amroati district. (C. L. I. III, no. 55; line 18; I. A. 1923, p. 262). Ambastha-Dravida-Latah Kambhoja-Strimukhah Sakah | Anartavasinas caiva jneya daksinapascime || The Vdh. P. has an identical list except that it substitutes Naga for Lata and Ananta for Anarta. Both these forms can be dismissed as copyists' errors. It accordingly remains to identify briefly these names and confirm their location in the south-western division. Ambastha. This tribe is clearly to be identified with those of the Mahabharata, where they are associated with the Sibis and Trigartas (MB. 2.29.6.; 2.48.14; 6.18.13 etc.). They are well known in classical writers as one of the tribes conquered by Alexander the Great and are located by them on the lower Akesines (mod. Chenab). They are the Sabarcae of Curtius (IX, 8), the Sambastai of Diodorus (17, 102), and the Abastanoi of Arrian (Anab. VI. 15). This well-known name appears out of place here. In the Mahabharata and the Puranas it is generally associated with the tribes of the extreme south. Kern however, considers that a branch originally existed in Baluchistan and accordingly identifies them with the Brahui tribe who are said to belong to Dravidian stock. It is possible that their inclusion in the present division is due to "editing" on the part of copyists. Rajasekhara (Kavya-mimamsa Dravida.

92 211 Lata. Kamboja. puranam - PURANA [Vol. IX., No. 1 p. 93) mentions a country called Travana in the western region and associates it with Surastra. Such a name, if little known, as would seem likely as I have been unable to trace it elsewhere, may well have been "corrected" by copyists as Dravida. This name is identical with the Larike of Ptolemy (VII. 1. 4.) and is usually identified with central Gujarat around Baroach between the Mahi and Tapti rivers. Larike is generally regarded as a Greek transcription of a Prakrit from Latika (Lassen. Ind. Alt. (2. ed.) I. p. 137), which is derived from Sanskrit Rastrika, a form that occurs in Asoka's edicts. Though a janapada of considerable importance and antiquity, being mentioned in the Nirukta of Yaska, its exact location has been the subject of much controversy among scholars. According to Ray Chaudhuri (L'iconographie Bouddhique p. 134), who relies on the evidence of the Karnaparva of the Mahabharata (7. 4. 4.), Rajapura (mod. Rajauri) is contiguous to Kamboja. Accordingly he locates it in the present Chitral and Hazara districts. This view is however refuted by Jayacandra (Bharatabhumi aur uske nivasi pp. 297-305), who identifies Kamboja with modern Kafiristan on the evidence of the Rajatarangini (IV. 163 ff.), which states that Lalitaditya of Kashmir (625-732 A. D.), on entering the northern district, defeated the Kambojas, and then marched against the Bhauttas. As the location of the latter in Baltistan is certain, Kamboja is to be located in Kafiristan. Strimukha. This tribe must be identical with the Narimukhas of the Brhatsambita (XIV, 17; and the Vanitamukhas of the Markandeyapurana (58.30). According to Alberuni (ed. Sachau, 1. p. 302) they are to be identified with the Turks.

Jan., 1967] HORTER KURMA-VIBHAGA TEXTS OF PURANNAS 93 Saka. Anarta. Modern Seistan. Modern Kathiawar or northern Gujarat, though there is some controversy as to their actual position. Some locate them in the region of Kusasthali (mod. Dwarka), while others place them in the vicinity of Anarttapura, later called Anandapura (mod. Vadnagar). Strirajyah Saindhava Mleccha Nastika Yavanas tatha / pascimena ca vijneya Mathura Naisadhaih saha || The Vdh. P. reads the same text except in place of Mathura Naisadhaib, it has patuman ausadhaih, which is clearly corrupt. Mathura is an extremely good example of how names were corThe rupted and subsequently "corrected" to other names. original reading for Mathura, which can only be placed in the Madhyadesa region, was almost certainly Ramatha; this by an orthographical confusion was changed to Mathura, and this form induced another later editor to substitute the well-known Mathura. It remains to identify these tribes and establish their location in the western division. Strirajya. This tribe is mentioned in the Mahabharata as a N-W people along with the Tanganas (MB. 3.48.21). It is also mentioned by Vatsyayana's Kamasutra (2.5.27; 2.6.43), whose commentator paraphrases it as Stripuri and locates it west of Vrajavanta or Vangarakta, information that does not help us as the identity of the latter place is also unknown. According to Dey it is to be identified in the area of Garhwal and Kumaun. Saindhava. According to Alberuni (ed. Sachau I, p. 260), the upper course of the Indus above its junction with the Chenab was called Sindhu. Hence the Saindhavas may be located on its banks. Nastika. This name is clearly identical with the people described in the corresponding section of the Parasara as "tyaktadharma".

94 Yavana. Ramatha. Naisadha. puranam -- PURANA [Vol. IX., No. 1 Possibly a general reference to the Graeco-Bactrian of N-W India. A low and barbarous tribe according to the Mahabharata (MB. 12.65.14). Ptolemy refers to them as Rhamnai. Levi (J. A. 1915 p. 112) would locate them near Ghazni on the evidence of the Mahabharata (3.48.21) and the Mahamayuri (line 99). This tribe is clearly out of place here as it has been mentioned in the Puranas as a Vindhya country and has been located by the longer Kurmavibhaga in the S-E. It is perhaps an error for Nisada, a branch of which is mentioned in the Mahabharata (3.130.4.), which states that the place where the Sarasvati disappeared was the gateway to the country of the Nisadas. Mandavyas ca Tusaras ca Mulikas ca Musah Khasah / Mahakesa Mahanada desas tuttarapascime // reads Mukha Mulika cannot The Vdh. P. has the same text except that it for Musa and correctly Mahanasa for Mahanada. possibly be the correct reading here as it is to be located on the Godavari; it may however be easily amended to Culika, which has been placed in the N-W by the longer Kurmavibhaga texts. With regard to the form Musa or Mukha, this may be combined with the preceding as ca to produce the form Asvamukha, which the longer texts place in the North. Thus Mulikas ca Mukha may be amended to Culikasvamukha. It now remains to identify briefly the above mentioned tribes. Mandavya. This name occurs not less than three times in the longer Kurmavibhaga texts, where it is mentioned in the Madhyadesa, Northern and North West lists. The Mandavyas in the central region are variously located at Modern Mandawar, eight miles north of Bijnor (J.U.P.H.S. XV pt. II (1942) p. 43) and at Mandor near Jodhpur on the evidence of inscriptions (E.I. XVIII, p. 95 cf. The Jodhpur Inscription of

Jan., 1967 SHORTER KURMA-VIBHAGA TEXTS OF PURANAS 95 Tusara. Culika. Khasa. Pratihara Bauka verse 10 "mandavyapuradurge'smin") The Mandavyas of the North and North-West have not been identified however. According to Stein (Rajatarangini I, p. 136) they are to be located in the Upper Oxus valley. According to the Matsya-puiana (121.45) the Vaksu (Oxus) flowed through their territory. Modern Khakkhas to the west of Nepal. The Asvamukhas, Mahakesas and Mahanasas cannot be precisely identified. In the case of ill-known tribes with whom the Aryans would have little contact, one may expect differentiation to be made among them on the basis of physical characteristics. Garuda P. Lampakas Tananagas ca Madra-Gandhara-bahlikah / Himacalalaya mleccha udicim disam asritah // Vah. P. Lampagas Talanagas ca Maru-Gandhara-Jahutah | Himavannilaya mleccha hy udicim disam asritah // There is somewhat more variation between the two texts than has previously been the case. The inaccuracy of Maru in the Vah.P. text is proved not only by the corresponding text of the Garuda P. but also by the internal evidence of the Vdh.P. itself. At the end of its list of peoples, it gives the name of the country which is considered to represent the region as a whole. For the N-W region Madra is given. There is also a discrepancy between the Bahlikas of the Garuda P. and the Jahutas of the Vdh.P. The latter name appears to be a corruption of Jaguda, which is similarly located in the north by the Bhuvanakosa texts Bahlika is a well-known name, but here is perhaps the result of a copyist's effort to correct a corrupted portion of the text. The Talanagas are identical with the Talaganas of the puranas, which similarly locate them in the northern division along with the Lampakas. Dey wrongly divides the text as Lampaka StanaNaga and identifies the middle name with Kustana i. e. Khotan in East Turkestan, thereby inventing a country that does not exist. Lampaka. The Lambatai of Ptolemy (VII. 1. 42) who locates them near the sources of the Koa (Kabul) river,

96 Talagana. Madra. Gandhara. Jaguda. Garuda P. Vah. P. puranam - PURANA [V 1. IX., No. 1 Their name is preserved in modern Lamghan, a small territory on the north bank of the Koa (Kabul) river. The location of this tribe is uncertain, but it must be somewhere near Lamghan in view of its close juxtaposition with Lampaka in both the Bhuvanakosa and Kurmavibhaga texts. The capital of the Madras was Sakala, first identified by Cunningham (A. G I. 1871 ed., p. 180) with Sanglawala Tiba in the Jhang district of the Punjab, but subsequently proved by Fleet to be Sialkot. A country of considerable antiquity, being known from Vedic times (RV. I 126.7). The Greeks knew it as Gandaridai or Gandarites (Ptolemy, VII. 1. 44; Herodutus 3. 91). It is to be identified with the modern Rawalpindi and Peshawar districts. According to the Matsyapurana (121.45) the Indus flowed through its territory. Levi (J.A. 1915, p.114) would identify it with modern Ghazni. Trigarta Nila-Kolabha-Brahmaputrah sa-Tankanah / Abhisahah sa-Kasmina udakpurvena kirtitah || Trigarta-Mina-Kauluta-Brahmaputrah sa-Tiganah / Abhisaras ca Kasmiras coda kpurvena kirtitah || The two texts serve to correct each other's mistakes. Garuda P. Tankana corrects VdhP. Tigana, while the latter's Kauluta corrects the former's Kolabha. Both wrongly have Brahmaputra, which, as the corresponding section of the longer Kurmavibhaga text shows, must be corrected to Brahmapura. The choice between Garuda P. Nila and Vdh.P. Mina is uncertain. If Nila is accepted as the correct reading, it would probably be identical with the Nilaparvata of the Uttara Kurus, which is identified with the Kuemlum range in Tibet. A comparison of the longer and shorter Kurmavibhaga texts however suggests that both Nila and Mina may be corrupt and that the correct reading should be Cina. Trigarta. Modern Jalandhar district between the Ravi and Sutlej.

Jan., 1967] HORTER KURMA-VIBHAGA TEXTS OF PURANAS 97 Cina. If this reading is adopted, the Cinas may be identified with the tribes of Chinese origin who lived on the northern slopes of the Himalayas. Kauluta. The inhabitants of the district of Kulu in the upper valley of the river Beas. Brahmapura. According to Watters (On Yuan Chang I. p. 329) this name is to be equated with the Po-lo-lih-mo-pulo of Hiuen Tsiang, whose evidence indicates that it must be placed in the region of Kumaon and Garhwal. Cunningham (A.G.I. (1871ed.) p. 355) identifies it more specifically with the area between the Alakananda and Karnali rivers. Tankana. The Tanganoi of Ptolemy, they may be located in the mountainous regions extending from the Ramganga to the Upper Sarayu. Abhisara. Kasmira. The Abhisaras were a well known tribe to the Greek historians and the Mahabharata, where they are frequently associated with the Darvas (MB. 6. 10. 52; 2. 24. 18 etc.). At the time of Alexander's invasion they allied themselves with the Pauravas against the Greeks. Their exact location is however disputed. McCrindle (Alexander's Invasion, p. 69) places them at Hazara, but Stein (Rajatarangini I p. 32) identifies them with the tract of hills between the Jhelum and Chenab including the state of Rajapuri (mod. Rajauri). Modern Kashmir. With the survey of the peoples of the North-East Division completed, our examination of the shorter Kurma vibhaga texts of the puranas comes to an end. On the whole they are somewhat disappointing as a source for ancient Indian geography, as the majority of names are already well known from other However, as no systematic examination of them has occurred elsewhere, so far as the author has been able to discover, may not be without profit that their contents should have been tabulated. sources. 13