Adulteration & Substitution –An Interrupted and Non-interrupted...

[Full title: Adulteration & Substitution –An Interrupted and Non-interrupted Practices in Medicinal Plants in Ambiguous Herbal World]

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134 Journal of Ayurvedic and Herbal Medicine 2021; 7(2): 134-139 Review Article ISSN: 2454-5023 J. Ayu. Herb. Med. 2021; 7(2): 134-139 Received: 04-06-2021 Accepted: 20-06-2021 © 2021, All rights reserved www.ayurvedjournal.com DOI: 10.31254/jahm.2021.7212 *Corresponding author: Dr. Farzin M Parabia Associate Professor, Department of Biosciences, Veer Narmad South Gujarat University, Surat- 395007, India Email: farzin_parabia@yahoo.co.in Adulteration & Substitution: An Interrupted and Noninterrupted Practices in Medicinal Plants in Ambiguous Herbal World Parabia Farzin 1 , Ladani Miral 2 1 Associate Professor, Department of Biosciences, Veer Narmad South Gujarat University, Surat-395007, India 2 Research Student, Ashok & Rita Patel Institute of Intigrated Biotechnology and Allied Sciences, New Vallabh Vidyanagar- 388120, India ABSTRACT In India approximately 80% tribal population depends on herbal medicines for their health and proper care to cure disease at first primary level. Generally, these herbal medicines are classified into five different classes. Now a days people are not more worried about Ayurvedic medicines therefore Ayurvedic practitioners become busy professionals like other modern practitioners because preparation of their own medicines requires so much time and its processing is hard enough for patients as well as their family members also. Substitution of Ayurvedic medicines is carried out therefore is carried out Ayurvedic medicines are facings number of problems for different purposes. Ambiguous medicinal plants are those plants which are described very well in classes of Ayurvedic ancient medicines in a well manner but their identification is not yet clear. Based on book related survey these plants are identified and defined by many names. Sometimes one common name is given to two or more than two medicinalplants.Substitution and aduteration are activities that are most often seen in herbal businesses. Aim of th ese practices is mainly found in many large or small commercial firms include Worst mixing with other plant raw m aterials, substitution,addition with great skill, loss of medicinal properties of main drug. Now a day's substitution a nd adulteration is extremely important step in herbal businesses. Therefore there is need for proper methods for their right medicinal plants and herbal medicines. Keywords: Substitution, Adulteration, Ambiguity and Ambiguous plants/Drugs, Substituted plants. INTRODUCTION In Ayurveda more than 8000 medicines including single drug and combination of other compound herbal drugs is talked about. Generally these Drugs are classified into five different classes. Biological living species are identified traditionally according to their shape and structure which are known as morphological features. These Morphological keys are yet the main basis of taxonomical classification. In the case when morphological features of a specimen are lacking, it becomes very hard even for a specialists to recognize a species. Authentication using DNA barcodes overcomes these problems [4] . In India large and medium commercial firms are there. Among them 14 are large scale and 86 are medium scale commercial manufacturers. CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS 1. Scientifically studied Drugs 2. Famous non-toxic drugs 3. Efficient but toxic Drugs 4. Drugs which are very less in use 5. Hereditary Drugs and drugs used for Patients 1. Scientifically studied Drugs Some single Drugs like ‘ Sarpa gandha ’ and ‘ Curcumin’ have been studied scientifically and their therapeutic uses have been proved. Sarpa gandha is useful in high blood pressure and Curcumin is useful in healing of inflammation. Guggulu is useful in rheumatism. Gum Resin of Guggulu is important component for many medicines 2. Famous non-toxic Drugs Some drugs are very much famous for their therapeutic use among human population. These Drugs are

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135 Journal of Ayurvedic and Herbal Medicine|April-June|2021 nontoxic in nature. Such types of medicines are ‘ Chyawanprash’ and ‘ Arjunaristha’. Important ingredient of Chyawanprash is Amalaki which is useful in chronic diseases of lungs and chronic bronchitis. Important ingredient of Arjunaristha is Arjuna which is useful in treatment of hypotension and hypertension [1] . 3. Efficient but toxic drugs Some Drugs like ‘ Bhallataka’ , ‘Tambul’ and ‘ Nithyakalyani’ which have been used for their medicinal properties, but they also produce severe toxicity if used for longer time. Bhallataka is used in skin disorders. More use of Nithyakalyani produce nausea, vomiting and other symptoms related to stomach and intestine. More use of Tambul leads to dysuria [1] . 4. Drugs which are very less in use Some drugs for example ‘ Vishnu tail a’ is very less in demand because it is used only in certain parts on India. Aavari is also very less in use [1] . 5. Hereditary Drugs and drugs used for Patients Sometimes health officers are specialized in treatment of certain diseases. The formula and methods of these drugs are known only to them or to some trustworthily family members. Some drugs are not as effective as they proved but some other drugs are found to be very much effective. In most of cases health officers are not all willing to disclose the formula and even if they give consent, it is associated with a demand for heavy financial compensation [1] . ANCIENT AYURVEDIC PRACTICES: In older Days medical practitioner was very least consulted for minor disorders because older members of family were well familiar with the use of herbs for treatment of such disorders. At that time the role of medical practitioner was only to guide their family members for proper collection of plants and process them properly and to guide them for proper diet during ongoing treatment. So only serious cases needed their supervision and in that case they needed to prepare their own medicines. Things have been changed now. They are approached for even minor disorders. Now a days people are not more concerned about Ayurvedic medicines therefore ayurvedic practitioners become busy practitioners like other modern practitioners because preparation of own medicines require so much time and its processing is hard enough for patients as well as their family members also. As result of this some well known and big commercial agencies which supply Ayurvedic medicines are facings number of problems. These problems are as follows: Problems faced by commercial firms 1. Collection of premature herbs 2. Improper processing and preservation 3. Methods of preparation 4. Use of substituted drugs 5. Substitution of costly drugs 6. Omission of Ingredients 1. Collection of premature herbs For medicinal purposes different parts of medicinal plants are required which arecollected during specific period of time. Annual plants are collected before ripening of seeds. Biennial plants are collected during season of spring and perennial plants are collected during season of autumn. Some plant fruits are collected only when they are fully ripened like ‘ Amlaki’. Stick of the plant is collected during the first year of its growth. Barks and roots are collected during hot, rainy as well as cold seasons. These informations are followed by large commercial agencies during collection of plants [1] . 2. Improper processing and preservation Raw materials of drugs are stored for some time before processing. Proper care is needed during packaging of these raw materials because during this procedure there are chances of loss of some important active ingredient compound from these raw materials. 3. Methods of preparation Various methods are described for preparation of ayurvedic drugs. Some of methods are time consuming and need skilled labour where as some methods are. not so much costly. Therefore for these reason some companies follow less costly methods and develop their own less costly methods for preparation of such drugs but drugs prepared by these methods are not guaranteed to be as much effective as they are prepared by these less cost effective methods. Therefore due to these problems sometimes medical practitioners are not sure about effectiveness of drugs to which they prescribed [1] . 4. Use of substituted drugs Some drugs which have important medicinal uses like ‘ Jyotishmati, ‘Yasti madhu’ and ‘ Jatamansi’ are often substituted and adulterated and sold in market with cheaper prize. Ayurvedic practitioners and commercial agencies are also supplied with these adulterated materials and consumers are also facing such kind of problems. 5. Substitution of costly drugs In some cases main substituent of some costly drugs are prescribed. For example ‘ Satavari’ is used in place of ‘ Musali’ and ‘ Atibala’ used in place of ‘Dudhiyakalmi’.’Jatamani’ is substituted with ‘Tagar’ and ‘Bhutkeshi’. 6. Omission of Ingredients Generally compound preparations are used in ayurvedic medicines. These compound preparations are total effect of all individual drugs which plays an important therapeutic role. These ingredients are served for following purposes: PURPOSES 1. Synergistic Action Synergistic action is the combined or cumulative action of all individual active ingredients of drug.’ Trina panchmool kwath’ is example of synergistic action. Combined action of ingredients like ‘ Kusha’, ‘Kasha’, ‘Shara’, ‘Darbha’, ‘Ikshu’ is used in urine related disorders(as diuretics).It means each ingredient is used as diuretics but when all ingredients are together they produce their synergistic effect.

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136 Journal of Ayurvedic and Herbal Medicine|April-June|2021 2. Combined Action Madhunasini vati is used in the treatment of diabetes. For curing diabetes this medicine should have anti-diabetic, neuroprotective, cardio protective, antioxidant and adaptogenic action. 3. Neutralizing toxicity Anantmul is example of neutralizing drug. If high dosage of Kupilu will be taken then it will cause trouble to human body therefore Kupilu is not taken alone but it is first purified by procedure mentioned in ‘ Sodhana ’ and then it is taken with other drugs to decrease it toxic effect [1] . 4. Specific action ‘ Medhyarasayana’ and ‘ Chyavanaprash’ are example of specific action drugs. In the preparation of Chyavanaprash Pippali is added by heat treatment which has anti-tubercular effect. To decrease heating effect of Pippali cooling effect of Amlaki is given [1] . 5. Improper storage This class includes various types of drugs which are effective for certain limited period of time but they lose their potency if they are used for longer period of time. Drugs prepared by manufacturers are not used immediately after their production but there is huge time gap before this drug is really used by patients. By remembering above points many formulas have been described for medicinal preparations. Due to some reasons like if any of ingredients is not available at time or it is too much costly then preparation of formulation without them not only decreases potency of drug but it will create harmful effects also. The estimated current annual production of herbal drugs is around Rs. 3500 crores. There is great opportunity sector for Indian trade and commerce in the field of pharmaceuticals, nutraceutical, cosmetics and other products due to the increased demand of medicinal plants [6] . The traditional system of medicine implements medicinal plants to cure various diseases, however herbal industry undergoes from substitution and adulteration of medicinal herbs with closely related species. TRANSITION OF TWO SIDES OF COINS IN AYURVEDA-SUBSTITUTION AND ADULTERATION: Abiguity And Abiguous Plants Ambiguous medicinal plants are those plants which are described very well in classes of Ayurvedic drugs in a well manner but their identification is not yet clear. Based on literature survey these plants are identified by many names. Sometimes one common name is given to two or more than two medicinal plants. Therefore, such type of ambiguity in identification of ambiguous medicinal plants creates trouble sometimes. There are many medicinal plants found which has still ambiguous identity. Amarvel that is common name of medicinal plants Cuscuta reflexa and C. chinensis. Table 1: List of Ambiguous medicinal plants in which mostly Ambiguity is found. Common name of ambiguous medicinal plant Botanical name of medicinal plants that often finds ambiguity Shankhpushpi ➢ Convolvulus microphyllus ➢ Convolvulus pluricolius ➢ Clitorea ternatea ➢ Evolvulus alsinoids Amrvel ➢ Cuscuta reflexa ➢ Cuscuta officinalis ➢ Cuscuta chinensis Kumari ➢ Aloe vera ➢ Aloe barbadensis ➢ Aloe chinensis Bala ➢ Abutilon indium ➢ Sida cordifolia ➢ Sida rhombifolia Brahmi ➢ Bacopa monnieri ➢ Centella aciatica ➢ Bacopa floribunda Nagkesar ➢ Messua ferrea ➢ Orchocarpus longifolius ➢ Calophyllum inophyllum ➢ Cinnamomum tamala ➢ Dillenia pentagyna Pipali ➢ Piper nigrum ➢ Piper retrofractum ➢ Piper chaba Aakado ➢ Calotropis procera ➢ Calotropis gigantea Kantkari ➢ Solanum virginianum ➢ Solanum xanthocarpum Pashananbheda ➢ Bergania lingulata ➢ Aerva javanica ➢ Brayophyllum pinnatum Tulsi ➢ Ocimum sanxtum ➢ Ocimun tenuiflorum ➢ Ocimum americanum ➢ Ocimum gratissimum Table-1 shows list ambiguous medicinal plants which show ambiguity. SUBSTITUTION IN MEDICINAL PLANTS Substitution in medicinal plants is often faced by different commercial firms due to following reasons: Reasons for substitution 1. Confusion in Vernacular Names 2. The deforestation and extinction of many species 3. Lack of Knowledge About Authentic Source 4. Similarity in Morphology 5. Similarity in Colour 6. Careless Collections 7. Need for Substitution

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137 Journal of Ayurvedic and Herbal Medicine|April-June|2021 1. Confusion in Vernacular names: People of India did ethanobotanical and ethanomedical practices for practical documentation of medicinal plants. Various experts like Indian hakims and vaidyas were involved in this work. That was pre Linnaean period and at that time there was not pre existing system present for proper classification naming and botanical documentation of medicinal plants. For an example in the 17 th centaury Hortus malabaricus was written in 794 different interpretations along with pronunciation of each individual plant in Latin and its name in four scripts [2] . But only names don’t give identity. Identity needs detailed morphological interpretation that is mentioned in ayurvedic literatures. Only such plants like ‘ Haridra ’ and ‘ Tulsi ’ which have been actively used since ancient time have not controversy in their names. Way to identify plants is to interact with traditional tribal living communities who have knowledge of these plants and have lifelong ancient survivor family members from them they get knowledge of these medicinal plants [2] . Because of similarity of in names mentioned in traditional medicines Fumaria parvifora which is commonly known as Parpatta and Mollugo pentaphylla which is commonly known as Parpadagam these two medicinal plants are often interchangeably substituted or adulterated. In the region of south India collectors supply M.pentaphylla as Parpatta /Parpadagam. In the region of north India collectors supply F.parvifora as Parpatta/Parpadagam. M.pentaphylla pale yellowish in colour, contains hairy stem, and small leaves F.parvifolia is dark brownish in colour and contains finger like leaves so called digitate leaves Tamarix indica which is commonly known as Amlika often identified as Casuarina equisetifolia which is commonly known as Aamrah and Bergenia ciliata which is commonly known as Pashanbheda often identified as Aerva lanata which is commonly known as Ashmahabhedah [3] . 2. The deforestation and extinction of many species Due to increasing horizons of industrialization and other anthropogenic activities like overexploitation some medicinally impotent medicinal plants lost their natural habitat. Among them deforestation is the main reason.In India especially in Western Ghats due to such kind of human activities some medicinal plants are become endangered now and some plants are in a threat to become extinct in near future. Among these medicinal plants Karihari , Arkmul and Anatmool are put in list of rare and endemic plant species of Western Ghats. 3. Lack of Knowledge about Authentic Source Pushkarmool i s one of the important drugs where as it is often adulterated with Kuth root. However, Pushkarmool is available in ample quantity in the region of Himachalpradesh, Uttarakhand and Kashmir of India. But sometimes people don’t know about it and sometimes also such type of collection activities are not allowed in such areas. Because of these reasons Kuth root is sold as Pushkarmool . Hypericum perforatum plant which is basically is not from Indian origin grown and sold in European countries. In India its availability is very less therefore Hypericum petulum is sold in place of H.perforatum in Indian market. If we see thin section of contains thin phloem, depressed pith and no calcium oxalate crystals where as thin section of H. petulum contains thick phloem, partially depressed pith and presence of calcium oxalate crystals [3] . 4. Similarity in Morphology One of the good examples of similarity of morphology in medicinal plants is Shankhpushpi . Main plant of Shankhpushpi known as Evolulus alsinoids . Flowers of S hankhpushpi are often substituted with flowers of Convolvulus microphyllus and Convolvulus pluricolius due to similarity in morphology of their roots and stems. Sometimes Shankhpushpi is also adulterated with Aparajita known as Clitorea ternatea. 5. Similarity in Colour When certain time period passed well known plant material is changed or substituted with leaves and other plant materials . Best example of it is Brahmi. Leaves are collected from south and eastern part of India most prominently from Assam . But as present source Nirbrahmi is used which is known as Bacoppa moniari due to similarities in leaves Bacoppa moniari and Hydrocotyl aciatica are also used as present day source of Brahmi. So whatever is available in market right know that is actually originated from Centella aciatica. Present Day example is Jathropha curcas which is commonly known as Ratanjot . As source of Ratanjot roots of Ventilago madraspatana were collected from region of Western Ghats which is commonly known as Raktvali . But present day source of Ratanjot is Arnebia euchroma which is commonly known as Suvaha . V. madraspatana is substituted with A. euchroma . So in present day in Indian market A. euchroma is available as Ratanjot [3] . 6. Careless Collections Due to careless collection by suppliers Gugullu is often mixed with Babool . Parmelia perlata which is commonly known as Sitasiva is useful as grocery and food stuffs. In market this plant species is mixed with P. perforata and P. cirrhata as Sitasiva [3] . 7. Need for Substitution Sometimes there is need for substitution due to several reasons. Main plant souse is sometimes vary much costly and not available in all seasons and their collection procedure is so much time taking and also sometime they grow in restricted areas where collection is strictly prohibited. In those cases, plant that used as substituent species are easily available and not so much costly in prize. Most important their collection is not so much time taking. More or less medicinal properties of plants are not so much changed. So for such cases there is strong need for substitution. NEED FOR SUBSTITUTION: 1. Individuality is not sure Sometimes botanical individuality of medicinal plant is not emphasized properly so they are substituted easily. Shankhpushpi is example of it. Different species such like Convolvulus pluricolius , C. microphyllus and Clitorea ternatia are considered as Shakhpushpi .

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138 Journal of Ayurvedic and Herbal Medicine|April-June|2021 2. Prize of Plant Because of highly accurate environment during cultivation and proper processing sometimes medicinal plants are very much costly. In Indian market Kesar is very much rich in prize. Crocus sativus – Saffron Kesar that is often substituted with Carthamus tinctorius which is commonly known as Kusumbha. 3. Unfavorable reaction with drugs Sometimes some medicinal plants are proven to be good in treatment of influenza, rheumatism and they also work as good blood purifier. Roots of Ginger a nd leaves of Chitrag are good in treatment of flue and cold. But use of Zingiber officinalis and Plumbago zeylanica is avoided during pregnancy period. They are giving with combination of other plants drugs. Table 2: Medicinally important main plant substituted with other plant. Main medicinal plant Common name Substituted plant Common name Beliospermu m monatum Danti Croton oblongifolius Nagdanti Celatrus peniculatus Jyotishma ti Cardiospermum helicacabum Kanfuti Abutilon indicum Atibala Ipobea alba Dudhiyakalmi Catunaregam spinosa Mindhal Gardenia turgida Karumba Messua ferrea Nagkesar Ochrocarpus longifolious Raktpuspa Piper chaba Pipali Piper retrofractum Pipali Cinnamomum camphora Kapur Leonotis nepetifolia Granthiparni Myristica fragrances Jatiphala syzygium aromaticum Lavang Inula racemosa Puskarmul Ricinus communis Arandi Braccica nigra Kalli raai Argimone maxica Brahmadandi Plumbago zeylanica Chitrag Beliospermum monatum Danti Ocimum basilicum Shyam tulsi Ocimum sanctum Tulsi Semecarpus anarcardium Bhallatak a Semecarpus travancoria Bhallataka Clerodendron serratum Bharangi Solanum xenthocarpum Kantakari Marsdenia tenacissima Murva Operculina turpethum Trivit Desmostachy a bipinnata Kusha Saccharum spotanium Kasha Origanum vulgare Maruvaka Origanium majorana Murva Microstysis muscifera Rishbhaka Ipomoea digitata Vidari kanda Sena angusthifolia Sonamukh i Cassia oftusifolia Kasundri Semecarpus anarcardium Bhallatak a Semecarpus travancoria Bhallataka Alhagi camelorum Yavasa Tragia involucrata Duralabha Caparis sepiaria Ahimsra Alocasia macrorrhiza Mankanda Psoralea corylifolia Somaraji Cassia tora Chkramada Jungle geranium Bandhuka Calophyllum inophyllum Punnaga Vitis venifera Draska Saussurea lappa Kashmiri Pinctada Margaritifera Mukta Pinctada Mrgaritifera -calyx Muktashakti Table 2 shows list of main medicinal pant which are often substituted with other plants. ADULTERATION Adulteration refers to Substitution of main medicinal part with partially or totally different plant. In short adulteration is interrupted or none interrupted activity which is generally carried out by different commercial firms for their benefits [5] . Worst mixing with other plant raw materials, substitution, qualitative addition with great skill, loss of qualitative medicinal properties of main medicinal plant or drugs are procedures of Adulteration. Worst mixing includes mixing of one substance to another purposefully and sometimes not intensely and such kind of practices is called admixing. In most often cases it is kind of careless and unintentional activity. Qualitative addition with great skill is kind of activity which is done purposefully for financial benefits. Such practices are like gold coating which is done by jewelers but it is not real gold as such. Loss of qualitative properties of main medicinal plant is because of bacterial, fungal and parasitic infection which also leads to adulteration. Substitution and adulteration are connected with each other. If such kind of practices will be remain for longer period of time Individuality of real main medicinal plant will be in trouble. Due to similarity in morphology and similarity in medicinal uses mentioned in ancient Ayuvedic text is main reason for substitution. Such practices are sometimes problematic in standardization of herbal products and formulations. Substitutions are carried out because sometimes authentic source plant is not available in time, deforestation of their natural habitats, seasonal variations, lake of knowledge about their proper cultivation. Substitution and adulteration are unprofessional practices because of collectors and suppliers are not well trained. Therefore, to fix these problems to give better positions to person has helping hands and proper knowledge about fixing problems and who can generate standardization of authentic source based on their years hard work and should put in front line by providing them proper environment and chance for peaceful work. World health organization (WHO) published quality standards for medicinal plants. According to these standards if any plant material is substituted or adulterated with more than 5% with other raw materials like other plant parts such as roots, stem, leaves etc., and then such plat material will be refused to maintain proper efficacy and safety in herbal commercial firms. Based on these standards adulteration whether it is carried out purposefully or not will be refused. Proper awareness about knowledge of authentic source of medicinal plant material is given to local suppliers and collectors to decrease such kind of practices. Adulteration and substitution are major disadvantage in improvement of herbal drugs. So, for proper standardization, efficacy and potency of herbal drugs problems related substitution and adulteration of

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139 Journal of Ayurvedic and Herbal Medicine|April-June|2021 medicinal plants should be solved. To maintain uniformity in selection and standardization of main herbal drugs Ayurvedic pharmacopeia of India (API) plays major important role. Table 3: List of medicinal plants adulterated with other plants Main medici nal plant Common name Adulterated plant Common name Nardostachys jatamansi Jatamasi Valeriana wallichi Selinum vaginatum Tagar Bhutkeshi Messua ferrea Nagkesar Nilumbo nusifera Padmakesar Punica granatum Anar Garnicia indica Kokum Aconitum heterophyllum Ativisha Cyprus rotundus kuruvund Microdtylis wallichi Jiivaka Tinospora cordifolia Guduchi Saccharum officinarum Iksu Arundo donax Dhamana Ipomea sepiaria Lakshmana Adiantum caudatum Mayursikha Mimusops elengi Bakula Vachellia nilotica Babool Coffea Arabica Kafi Tamarindus indica Amlika Commiphora myrrha Bol Commiphora wightii Gugullu Crocus sativus Kesar Carthamus tinctorius Kusumbha Anicostema axillari Mamejvo Parthenium hysterophorus Ghas CONCLUSIO N Both substitution and Adulteration are different set of terminologies. Majority of substitution and adulteration is carried out due to improper pharmaceutical activity rather than morphological similarity and difficulties in their individualities. Acknowledgement Author is thankful to Dr Farzin M Parabia for his constant support. Conflict of Interest None declared. Financial support and sponsorship Nil. REFERENCES 1 Dash VB, Kashyap VL. Mareia Medica of Ayurveda. Concept Publishing, New Delhi, 1979. 2 Manilal K. S. Hortus malabaricus and the ethnobotanical Knowledge of ancient Malabar. Anc Sci Life. 1984; 4(2):96 – 99. 3 Mitra SK, Kannan R. A note on unintentional adulterations in Ayurvedic herbs. Ethnobotanical Leaflets. 2007;2007(1):3. 4 Rai PS, Bellampalli R, Dobriyal RM, Agarwal A, Satyamoorthy K, Narayana DA. DNA barcoding of authentic and substitute samples of herb of the family Asparagaceae and Asclepiadaceae based on the ITS 2 region. Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative medicine. 2012;3(3):136. 5 Kumar SP. Adulteration and substitution in endangered ASU medicinal plants of India: a review. International Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. 2014;4(1):56-73. HOW TO CITE THIS ARTICLE Farzin P, Miral L. Adulteration & Substitution: An Interrupted and Noninterrupted Practices in Medicinal Plants in Ambiguous Herbal World. J Ayu Herb Med 2021;7(2):134-139. Creative Commons (CC) License- This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license. This license permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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